Abstract
Background
Intracranial infection after puncture of cerebral hematoma in patients with intracerebral hemorrhage is very common in the department of neurosurgery, yet the relevant risks remain unknown. We attempted to analyze the risk factors of intracranial infection after puncture of cerebral hematoma, to provide insights into the management of patients with intracerebral hemorrhage after puncture of cerebral hematoma.
Methods
Patients with intracerebral hemorrhage after puncture of cerebral hematoma treated in our hospital from January 2017 to January 2020 were selected, the related characteristics of intracranial infection and no infection patients were compared. Logistic regression analyses were conducted to analyze the risk factors for intracranial infection after puncture of cerebral hematoma.
Results
A total of 925 patients with puncture of cerebral hematoma were included. The incidence of postoperative intracranial infection was 7.03%. There were significant statistical differences between the infected group and the no infection group in the American Association of Anesthesiologists (ASA) grade, length of hospital stay, consecutive operation, duration of surgery, extra-ventricular drainage (EVD) use (all p < 0.05). There was statistically significant difference in the duration of EVD between the infection and no infection groups (p = 0.002), and there was no significant difference in the frequency of EVD insertion between the two groups (p = 0.094). The length of hospital stay≥10 days (OR1.832, 1.062–3.158), consecutive operation (OR2.158, 1.358–3.430), duration of surgery≥4 h (OR1.581, 1.031–2.425), EVD use (OR1.694, 1.074–2.670), and duration of EVD ≥ 7 days (OR2.699, 1.689–4.311) were the risk factors of intracranial infection in patients with intracerebral hemorrhage after puncture of cerebral hematoma (all p < 0.05).
Conclusion
Clinical medical workers should take corresponding preventive measures against the different risk factors for prevention of intracranial infection in patient with puncture of cerebral hematoma.
Keywords: Intracranial infection, Puncture, Hematoma, Risk, Treatment, Nursing, Surgery
Background
Cerebral hemorrhage is one of the common clinical symptoms of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases [1]. It has the characteristics of high disability rate and mortality [2]. According to statistical reports [3, 4], death and disability caused by cerebral hemorrhage account for 33.7% patients with stroke in China. At the same time, the patient’s mortality within one month of cerebral hemorrhage was as high as 40% [5]. Although most patients can be effectively treated clinically, they often suffer severe consequences due to neurological damages after surgery. It’s been reported that more than 70% of survivors have different degrees of nerve injury after surgery, and the degree of disability varies [6]. As the proportion of the elderly population worldwide increases year by year, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases represented by cerebral hemorrhage gradually invade the health of the elderly, which seriously impair their quality of life, and pose a serious threat to their later life [7, 8]. Therefore, more and more people are gradually paying attention to the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases.
Hematoma puncture and drainage after cerebral hemorrhage is one of the most-commonly used surgical treatments. Intracranial infection related to hematoma puncture drilling and drainage are common complications, which can lead to increased morbidity [9]. According to reports [10, 11], the incidence of intracranial infections related to hematoma puncture drilling and drainage ranges from 1.84 to 6.09%. However, the potential related risk factors remain unclear. Previous studies have reported that the department of neurosurgery is a department with higher incidence of hospital infections. Early intervention treatment of patients with postoperative infections is of great significance. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate the characteristics of patients with intracerebral hemorrhage after puncture of cerebral hematoma, to analyze the potential risk factors of intracranial infection after puncture of cerebral hematoma, thereby providing evidences for the management of neurosurgery.
Methods
Ethical issues
Our study has been verified and approved by the ethics commitment of Xi’an International Medical Center Hospital (EC17090184), and written informed consents have been obtained from all the included participants.
Patients
Patients with puncture of cerebral hematoma treated in a traditional tertiary hospital from January 2017 to January 2020 were selected as the research participants. The inclusion criteria were if: (1) The patient was diagnosed as intracerebral hemorrhage and underwent emergency puncture of cerebral hematoma; (2) The age was ≥18 years old; (3) The patient’s relevant clinical data was complete and the follow-up of 3 months after discharge were successful; (4) Patients were informed and agreed to participate in this study. The exclusion criteria were: (1) age < 18 years; (2) patients with inflammation and abscesses in the meninges, ventricles, or intracranial; (3) patients did not agree to participant in this present study.
According to whether the patient’s intracranial infection occurred after surgery, we divided the patient into an infection group and a no infection group.
Hematoma volume determination
We used Siemens, SOMATOM, Definition, and 128 rows of CT for hematoma volume determation, the patients were routinely placed in the supine position, the head was advanced, the baseline was calibrated with the OM line, and the conventional axial tomography. Scanning parameters: layer thickness 5 mm, layer spacing 5 mm, rotation speed 0.2 s/rev, detector 128X0.6, tube current 370 mA, tube voltage 120 kV, pitch 1.2:1, standard value width 20 mm, bed speed 34 .5 mm rotation. We performed a reorganization with a layer thickness of 0.75 mm and an interval of 0.5 mm, and transferred to the post-processing station, then we opened the “Volume” program, delimited the hematoma area, click “Start” Evaluation” to measure the volume of the hematoma, and perform pseudocolor staining to obtain hematoma volume data.
Definition of intracranial infection
The judgment of intracranial infection referred to the relevant diagnostic criteria [12, 13], and the competent doctor makes the judgment based on the patient’s clinically relevant symptoms and laboratory test results. The specific diagnostic criteria were: (1) The patient had clinical manifestations of various intracranial infections such as postoperative fever, headache, or neck stiffness. (2) The patient’s cerebrospinal fluid test showed inflammatory index changes, which met one of the following: white blood cell count> 0.01 × 109/L; cerebrospinal fluid protein > 4.50 g/L; cerebrospinal fluid glucose > 2.50 mmol/L. (3) The peripheral blood white blood cell count was> 10 × 109/L.
Data collection
Based on the literature review, relevant neurosurgery expert recommendations and the clinical practice, we considered the potentially relevant risk factors related to the occurrence of intracranial infection in patients with puncture of cerebral hematoma. We made uniformed forms to collect the related information. We screened our hospital’s infection monitoring system, related surgical anesthesia system and patient medical records to organize and collect relevant information. The collected items in this present study included: patient’s age, gender, related surgical conditions, drug use, length of hospital stay, American Association of Anesthesiologists (ASA) classification, preoperative antimicrobial related use of patients, extra-ventricular drainage (EVD).
Statistical analysis
All collected data were analyzed using SPSS 23.0 statistical software. Relevant continuous data were expressed as “mean ± standard deviation”, and t test was used for comparison between two groups; categorical data was expressed as percentage, and Chi-square test or Fisher’s exact probability method is used for comparison between groups. In addition, we conducted univariate comparative analysis on the clinical data of infection and no infection groups. If the single-factor test comparison was statistically significant, it was further included for the multi-factor analysis. In this study, p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.
Results
The characteristics of included patients
A total of 925 patients with intracerebral hemorrhage undergone hematoma puncture were included, with 449 male patients and 476 female patients. The patients were varied from 21 to 88 years old, with an average age of (63.8 ± 6.95) years old (Table 1).
Table 1.
The demographic characteristics of included patients
| Items | Cases | Percentage (%) |
|---|---|---|
| Age | ||
| 20–29 | 2 | 0.22% |
| 30–39 | 19 | 2.05% |
| 40–49 | 88 | 9.51% |
| 50–59 | 289 | 31.25% |
| 60–69 | 305 | 32.98% |
| 70–79 | 158 | 17.08% |
| ≥ 80 | 64 | 6.91% |
| Gender | ||
| Male | 449 | 48.54% |
| Female | 476 | 51.46% |
| Diabetes | 237 | 25.62% |
| Hypertension | 399 | 43.14% |
| Hyperlipidemia | 198 | 21.41% |
| Bleeding site | ||
| Lift side | 526 | 56.86% |
| Right side | 399 | 43.14% |
The characteristics comparison of infection and no infection groups
Of the 925 surgical patients included, 65 patients had postoperative intracranial infection, and the incidence of intracranial infection was 7.03%. As shown in Table 2, there were significant statistical differences between the infected group and the no infection group in the ASA grade, length of hospital stay, consecutive operation, duration of surgery, EVD use (all p < 0.05). No significant differences on the gender, BMI, complicated diseases, bleeding location, use of immunosuppressants, ICU stay, antibiotics use before surgery and estimated hematoma volume were found between two groups (all p > 0.05).
Table 2.
The characteristics comparison of infection and no infection groups
| Factors | Infection group(n = 65) | No infection group(n = 860) | χ2/F | p |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 31 (47.69%) | 418 (48.60%) | 0.745 | 0.190 |
| Female | 34 (53.31%) | 442 (51.40%) | ||
| BMI (kg/m2) | ||||
| < 24 | 33 (50.77%) | 435 (50.58%) | 0.905 | 0.117 |
| ≥ 24 | 32 (49.23%) | 425 (49.42%) | ||
| Complicated diseases | ||||
| Diabetes | 18 (27.69%) | 219 (25.47%) | 0.215 | 0.092 |
| Hypertension | 29 (44.61%) | 370 (43.02%) | ||
| Hyperlipidemia | 15 (23.08%) | 183 (21.28%) | ||
| Use of immunosuppressants | ||||
| Yes | 16 (24.62%) | 201 (23.37%) | 0.741 | 0.121 |
| No | 49 (75.38%) | 659 (76.63%) | ||
| Bleeding location | ||||
| Basal ganglia | 35 (53.85%) | 422 (49.07%) | 1.128 | 0.093 |
| Thalamus | 19 (29.23%) | 268 (31.16%) | ||
| Brain lobe | 4 (6.15%) | 66 (7.67%) | ||
| Ventricle | 4 (6.15%) | 64 (7.44%) | ||
| Cerebellum | 2 (3.08%) | 28 (3.26%) | ||
| Brain stem | 1 (1.54%) | 12 (1.39%) | ||
| ASA grade | ||||
| I-II | 26 (40.00%) | 680 (79.07%) | 8.911 | 0.015 |
| III-IV | 39 (60.00%) | 180 (20.93%) | ||
| ICU stay | ||||
| Yes | 22 (33.85%) | 256 (29.77%) | 0.948 | 0.101 |
| No | 43 (66.15%) | 604 (70.23%) | ||
| The length of hospital stay (days) | ||||
| ≥ 10 | 55 (84.62%) | 387 (45.00%) | 0.590 | 0.012 |
| < 10 | 10 (15.38%) | 573 (55.00%) | ||
| Consecutive operation | ||||
| Yes | 54 (83.08%) | 408 (47.44%) | 2.405 | 0.008 |
| No | 11 (16.92%) | 452 (52.56%) | ||
| Duration of surgery (hours) | ||||
| ≥ 4 | 50 (76.92%) | 437 (50.81%) | 0.155 | 0.021 |
| < 4 | 15 (23.08%) | 423 (49.19%) | ||
| Antibiotics use before surgery | ||||
| Yes | 48 (73.85%) | 612 (71.17%) | 3.087 | 0.094 |
| No | 17 (26.15%) | 248 (28.83%) | ||
| EVD | ||||
| Yes | 52 (80.00%) | 508 (59.07%) | 0.152 | 0.026 |
| No | 13 (20.00%) | 172 (40.93%) | ||
| Estimated hematoma volume | ||||
| >45 ml | 32 (49.23%) | 416 (48.37%) | 1.048 | 0.083 |
| ≤ 45 ml | 26 (50.77%) | 444 (51.63%) | ||
Comparison on the EVD use between two groups
As shown in Table 3, there was statistically significant difference in the duration of EVD between the infection and no infection groups (p = 0.002), and there was no significant difference in the frequency of EVD insertion between the two groups (p = 0.094).
Table 3.
Comparison on the EVD use between two groups
| Factors | Infection group(n = 52) | No infection group(n = 508) | χ2 | p | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Duration of EVD (days) | < 7 | 6 (11.54%) | 317 (62.40%) | 9.037 | 0.002 |
| 7–14 | 41 (78.85%) | 173 (34.05%) | |||
| > 14 | 5 (9.61%) | 18 (3.55%) | |||
| Frequency of EVD insertion | 1 | 41 (78.85%) | 403 (80.28%) | 1.225 | 0.094 |
| > 1 | 11 (21.15%) | 99 (19.72%) | |||
Multivariate logistic regression analysis on the risk factors of intracranial infection
As shown in Table 4, multivariate logistic regression analysis suggested that length of hospital stay≥10 days (OR1.832, 1.062–3.158), consecutive operation (OR2.158, 1.358–3.430), duration of surgery≥4 h (OR1.581, 1.031–2.425), EVD use (OR1.694, 1.074–2.670), and duration of EVD ≥ 7 days (OR2.699, 1.689–4.311) were the risk factors of intracranial infection in patients with intracerebral hemorrhage undergone hematoma puncture (all p < 0.05).
Table 4.
Multivariate logistic regression analysis on the risk factors of intracranial infection
| Factors | β | s | χ | p | OR | 95%CI |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| The length of hospital stay ≥10 days | 0.605 | 0.278 | 4.741 | 0.029 | 1.832 | 1.062–3.158 |
| Consecutive operation | 0.769 | 0.236 | 10.592 | 0.001 | 2.158 | 1.358–3.430 |
| Duration of surgery≥4 h | 0.458 | 0.218 | 4.408 | 0.036 | 1.581 | 1.031–2.425 |
| EVD use | 0.527 | 0.232 | 5.147 | 0.023 | 1.694 | 1.074–2.670 |
| Duration of EVD ≥ 7 days | 0.993 | 0.239 | 17.256 | 0.000 | 2.699 | 1.689–4.311 |
Discussions
The surgical characteristics of neurosurgery are associated with the relatively high risk of infection complicated with surgery. The results of this study indicate that the incidence of intracranial infection in patients with puncture of cerebral hematoma is 7.03%, which is consistent with previous reports of related studies. In view of the high incidence of postoperative intracranial infection, it is of great clinical significance to explore the associated risk factors of intracranial infection after puncture of cerebral hematoma. The results of this study suggest that length of hospital stay≥10 days, consecutive operation, duration of surgery≥4 h, EVD use, and duration of EVD ≥ 7 days were the risk factors of intracranial infection in patients with intracerebral hemorrhage undergone hematoma puncture. Patients with performance should focus on the prevention and treatment of intracranial infection to improve the patient’s prognosis.
The postoperative infections in patients with neurosurgical craniocerebral surgery are mostly happens in the body cavity or intracranial parts [14]. It’s been reported that postoperative infection in patients with cerebrovascular diseases, craniocerebral trauma and craniocerebral tumors is relatively high, and its possible causes are closely related to the types of surgery, surgical methods and the characteristics of surgery in patients with this disease [15, 16]. Patients with cerebrovascular diseases and craniocerebral injuries mainly undergo emergency surgery in clinical settings, and there are often insufficient pre-operative preparations and incomplete debridement during surgery [17]. Therefore, patients have a relatively high risk of intracranial infection. Previous studies [18, 19] have shown that the incidence of postoperative infection in patients undergoing emergency surgery is significantly higher than that in patients undergoing elective surgery.
The surgical incisions in neurosurgery are mainly level I surgical incisions, which have relatively strict requirements on the environment, and air quality of the operating room [20, 21]. During the operation, the mobility of medical staff is relatively large, and the door of the operating room is opened and closed more frequently, so the static pressure difference in the operating room is significantly reduced, and the effect of air purification is significantly reduced [22]. Various activities such as the cleaning behavior of the operating room, resulting in a significant increase of the amount of planktonic bacteria in the operating room [23]. To a certain extent, the number of bacteria colonized in the surgical incision site of the patient is increased, and the risk of intracranial infection is increased [24]. Previous studies [25–27] have shown that the more the number of surgical procedures, the greater the number of related colonies in the air. The results of this study suggest that the risk of intracranial infections increases significantly with the duration extension of the operation. The reason may be that the longer the clinical operation time, the greater the trauma caused to the patient, and the number of related colonization bacteria exposed also increased accordingly [28, 29]. At the same time, the longer the operation time, the greater the potential bleeding during the operation, hence the risk of infection is increased [30].
In our study, the prolonged hospitalization was associated with infections. It must be noted that the stratification between surgical site infections acquired during the surgical procedures and those acquired during the hospital stay should be concerned. Since the retrospective design of the study, it is very difficult to retrieve this aspect. A variety of pathogenic microorganisms can be found in the hospital environment, which can be spread through the contact between medical workers and patients and their families, and the risk of cross infection is relatively high [31]. Previous studies [32, 33] have shown that the longer the hospital stay of patient is, the higher risk of being infected by related pathogens. Furthermore, the prolonged prophylaxis is associated with increased risk of infection [34, 35]. In our study, all the punctures of cerebral hematoma were emergency surgery, and it’s not recommended to take advanced antimicrobial prophylaxis before or after surgery, therefore the related data were incomplete. Besides, NIHSS is the routine neurological assessment method in our department, we attempted to collect those data, yet some of related data were missing, we could not include it for analysis. Future studies on infections type and duration of antimicrobial prophylaxis ware needed in the future. The skin preparation should be perfected before the operation, the incision and drainage port should be closed appropriately to prevent the leakage of cerebrospinal fluid.
The use of EVD and the duration of EVD ≥ 7 days were the independent risk factors for intracranial infection in patients with puncture of cerebral hematoma. Previous studies [36, 37] reported that in the patients with EVD placement, the risk of infection increases with the duration of EVD, which is consistent with the findings of this study. At the same time, the retention of EVD and the duration extension of drainage increase the risk of exposure to a certain extent [38]. Moreover, failure to aseptic operations and improper EVD care may cause intracranial infection, suggesting that EVD use should be highlighted in clinical setting [39]. Attention should be paid to observation of postoperative drainage in clinical nursing. Evaluation and nursing care to remove EVD as early as possible are needed to reduce the potential risk of intracranial infection [40].
There are many deficiencies in this study that should be concerned. First of all, the sample size of this study is relatively small, and it may be not sensitive enough to detect the potential risk factors related to intracranial infection. Secondly, previous study [41] has reported that the national-nosocomial-infection-surveillance-risk-index (NNIS) may be an influencing factor for infection in neurosurgery patients, limited by the clinical data, we failed to include NNIS and other possible influencing factors for stratified analysis. Thirdly, we did not have the information regarding pathogens involved, it’s necessary to evaluate the number of gram-positive vs gram-negative infections, and the predictors of infections could be different, further investigations on those issues are needed in the future. In addition, this study was a retrospective analysis design, and the sample size was small, and the number of included patients among different years was different, the incidence per person per year might be biased. Future study with prospective design with larger sample size are warranted.
Conclusions
In summary, the length of hospital stay ≥10 days, consecutive operation, duration of surgery≥4 h, EVD use, and duration of EVD ≥ 7 days were the risk factors of intracranial infection in patients with intracerebral hemorrhage undergone hematoma puncture. Therefore, for patients with puncture of cerebral hematoma, the duration of hospital stay should be shortened, as much as possible the duration of surgery, and strengthen EVD management and assessment on the possibility of early extubation of EVD.
Acknowledgments
None.
Abbreviations
- ASA
American association of anesthesiologists
- EVD
Ezxtra-ventricular drainage
Authors’ contributions
H H, M Z designed research; H H, Y L and L L conducted research; Y L, N L and Y W analyzed data; H H and M Z wrote the first draft of manuscript; M Z had primary responsibility for final content. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Funding
None.
Availability of data and materials
All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Our study has been verified and approved by the ethics commitment of Xi’an International Medical Center Hospital (EC17090184), and written informed consents have been obtained from all the included participants.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Footnotes
This article has been retracted. Please see the retraction notice for more detail: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-023-08841-5"
Publisher’s Note
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Haijing Han and Yu Li contributed equally to this work.
Change history
11/28/2023
This article has been retracted. Please see the Retraction Notice for more detail: 10.1186/s12879-023-08841-5
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Associated Data
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Data Availability Statement
All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.