Abstract
Objectives
To investigate the relationship between the eccentric calcification of aortic valve and transcatheter heart valve (THV) distortion and the impact of THV distortion on echo parameters and clinical outcomes.
Background
The effects of eccentric calcification of the aortic valve on the THV distortion and the relationship between THV distortion and clinical impact were not fully understood.
Methods
Patients with symptomatic severe aortic stenosis who were undergoing THV implantation were enrolled. Patients underwent preprocedural, postprocedural multislice computed tomography (MSCT), and follow-up transthoracic echocardiogram (TTE). Delta calcium score (ΔCS) is defined as the difference between the maximum and minimal calcium scores of the three cusps, while valve distortion score (VDS) is defined as the difference between the longest and shortest stent frame, as obtained using MSCT. Patients were divided into two groups according to ΔCS: “noneccentric calcification group” and “eccentric calcification group.”
Results
A total of 118 patients were enrolled (59 patients in noneccentric and 59 in eccentric calcification groups). VDS was significantly lower in the noneccentric calcification group than in the eccentric calcification group (1.31 ± 0.82 mm vs. 1.73 ± 0.76 mm, p=0.004). VDS was not associated with the degree of paravalvular leak (PVL) and aortic valvular mean pressure gradient (AVPG) at 30-day and 1-year follow-up TTE and the cumulative rates of all-cause death and rehospitalization at 2-year clinical follow-up.
Conclusions
Eccentric valvular calcification was associated with longitudinal THV distortion. However, THV distortion was not associated with PVL, AVPG, and adverse clinical events during midterm follow-up.
1. Introduction
Transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI) is a well-established treatment for intermediate- to high-risk patients with severe aortic stenosis (AS) [1–3]. However, previous studies reported that high burden of aortic valve calcification is a risk factor for TAVI complications, such as annulus rupture and paravalvular leak (PVL) [4, 5]. Calcification is also associated with the following factors: higher rates of adverse events during percutaneous coronary interventions (PCI), peripheral vascular interventions, and endovascular therapy for abdominal aortic aneurysms [6–10]. Some previous small studies investigated the distortion of transcatheter heart valve (THV) and its impact on THV functions [11, 12]. However, the effects of eccentric calcification of the aortic valve on the distortion of THV and the impact of THV distortion on THV functions and clinical impact were not fully understood. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between the degree and eccentricity of aortic valve calcification and THV distortion and the impact of THV distortion on follow-up echo parameters and clinical outcomes after TAVI.
2. Methods
2.1. Study Population and Procedures
Symptomatic patients diagnosed with severe AS who were undergoing TAVI were enrolled in this study. AS severity was defined according to the Valve Academic Research Consortium-2 criteria [13]. All TAVI procedures were performed using the third-generation balloon expandable Edwards SAPIEN3 heart valve system (ES3, Edwards Lifesciences, Irvine, California) with fluoroscopic and echo guidance (transthoracic or transesophageal). All patients underwent transfemoral placement of the THVs, sized 20, 23, 26, and 29 mm. THV size was selected using multislice computed tomography (MSCT) [14]. Heparin was administered to all patients during the procedure. Moreover, antiplatelet therapy (aspirin or clopidogrel or both) or anticoagulant therapy was administered before and after the procedure.
2.2. Computed Tomography Analysis and Definition
All patients underwent pre- and post-TAVI MSCT using the SOMATOM Definition AS + CT system with 64 detectors (SIEMENS Healthcare, Erlangen, Germany). The MSCTs performed before TAVI were contrast-enhanced. Scans were performed using electrocardiography synchronized data during acquisition with a systolic phase requirement. Aortic valve calcium scores were measured for each leaflet using the pre-TAVI MSCT image. To calculate aortic valve calcium scores, calcium volume score method was used [15, 16]. We applied the calcium volume score (not the Agatston score) because calcium volume score does not rely on lesion density, and instead seeking aims to estimate the true calcium volume. Thus, we believed the calcium volume score was more appropriate for our study. Delta calcium score (ΔCS) is defined as the difference between the maximum and minimal three-cusp calcium scores. Patients were divided into two groups according to the ΔCS: those with lower-than-median ΔCS were assigned to the “noneccentric calcification group,” whereas those with a higher-than-median ΔCS were assigned to the “eccentric calcification group” (median ΔCS = 148.5 mm3).
The MSCTs of post-TAVI procedures were usually performed before discharge and without use of contrast medium. Post-TAVI MSCT was used to create a 3D-volume-rendered view of the THV. The stent frame length was measured at each cusp. Valve distortion score (VDS) refers to the difference between the longest and shortest stent frame lengths (Figures 1(a) and 1(b)). The nominal ES3 stent frame lengths are 15.5 mm (20 mm THV), 18 mm (23 mm THV), 20 mm (26 mm THV), and 22.5 mm (29 mm THV). All THV stent frames were geometrically measured for the maximal and minimal orthogonal diameters at the four levels of THV: (a) THV inflow, (b) native annulus, (c) mid-THV, and (d) THV outflow [17]. Cross-sectional eccentricity index (THV) was defined as follows: (1 − short diameter/long diameter) × 100 (Figure 1(c)) [17, 18]. Valve oversizing ratio was calculated as follows: (observed THV external area at the native annulus level/native annular area − 1) × 100 [17]. All imaging constitutions and measurements were performed using a dedicated software (3mensio software; Pie Medical Imaging, Maastricht, Netherlands).
Figure 1.
Transcatheter heart valve distortion and multislice computed tomography analysis. A normal expanded transcatheter heart valve (THV) and distorted THV in a multislice computed tomography (MSCT) volume-rendered view (a). Using the postprocedural MSCT, a 3D-volume-rendered view of THV was constituted. The length of the stent frame on the center of each cusp was measured. Valve distortion score (VDS) was defined as the difference between the longest and shortest stent frame lengths (b). The THV stent frame was geometrically evaluated for maximal and minimal orthogonal diameters at the four levels of THV: THV inflow, native annulus, mid-THV, and THV outflow. The cross-sectional eccentricity index was defined as follows: (1 − short diameter/long diameter) × 100 (c).
2.3. Study Objectives
This study aimed to evaluate (1) the relationship between eccentric aortic valve calcification and THV distortion using 3D-MSCT imaging, (2) the relationship between THV distortion and THV functions such as PVL and aortic valvular mean pressure gradient (AVPG) using follow-up transthoracic echocardiogram (TTE), and (3) the impact of THV distortion on midterm (2-year) clinical outcomes.
2.4. Statistical Analysis
Categorical data are presented as counts and percentages and are compared using the chi-square test or Fisher exact tests. All continuous variables were tested for normality using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Continuous variables are presented as mean ± SD or median (interquartile range) for normally and nonnormally distributed variables. Between-group differences in continuous variables were compared using Student's t-test or Mann-Whitney U test. All data were analyzed using SPSS (version 25 for Windows; SPSS, Inc., Chicago Illinois) and R (version 3.0.2; The R Foundation for Statistical Computing Vienna, Austria).
3. Results
3.1. Baseline Characteristics and Clinical Outcomes
Between June 2016 and December 2018, 241 patients underwent TAVI. Among them, 139 patients underwent SAPIEN3 implantation. Of these, 19 patients who did not undergo postprocedural MSCT and two patients who died before discharge (1 patient died from acute respiratory distress syndrome and one patient died from colitis) were excluded in this study. In total, 118 patients were included. Patients' baseline data are shown in Table 1. This study included 42 males (35.6%) with mean age of 83.6 ± 5.1 years. The mean STS and Logistic Euro scores were 8.2 ± 7.5 and 21.0 ± 12.9, respectively. The prevalence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease was significantly higher in the eccentric calcification group, whereas the rate of prior PCI was higher in the noneccentric calcification group. The prevalence of diabetes mellitus was shown to be higher in the eccentric calcification group.
Table 1.
Patients characteristics.
| Overall (n = 118) | Noneccentric calcification group (n = 59) | Eccentric calcification group (n = 59) | p value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age (y) | 83.6 ± 5.1 | 83.0 ± 4.6 | 84.1 ± 5.5 | 0.241 |
| Male, n (%) | 42 (35.6) | 17 (28.8) | 25 (42.4) | 0.124 |
| Body mass index (kg/m2) | 22.7 ± 4.1 | 23.2 ± 4.6 | 22.2 ± 3.5 | 0.201 |
| STS score for mortality | 8.2 ± 7.5 | 7.3 ± 4.0 | 9.2 ± 9.7 | 0.177 |
| Logistic euroscore | 21.0 ± 12.9 | 19.2 ± 10.7 | 22.8 ± 14.7 | 0.123 |
| Hypertension, n (%) | 84 (71.2) | 45 (76.3) | 39 (66.1) | 0.223 |
| Dyslipidemia, n (%) | 47 (39.8) | 21 (35.6) | 26 (44.1) | 0.347 |
| Diabetes mellitus, n (%) | 29 (24.6) | 15 (25.4) | 25 (42.4) | 0.052 |
| Chronic kidney disease, n (%) | 67 (56.8) | 30 (50.8) | 37 (62.7) | 0.193 |
| Cerebral vascular disease, n (%) | 44 (37.3) | 20 (33.9) | 24 (40.7) | 0.446 |
| Peripheral vascular disease, n (%) | 37 (31.4) | 16 (27.1) | 21 (35.6) | 0.427 |
| Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, n (%) | 24 (20.3) | 7 (11.9) | 17 (28.8) | 0.022 |
| Atrial fibrillation, n (%) | 41 (34.7) | 17 (28.8) | 24 (40.7) | 0.176 |
| Prior permanent pacemaker, n (%) | 4 (3.4) | 2 (3.4) | 2 (3.4) | 1.000 |
| Prior myocardial infarction, n (%) | 10 (8.5) | 4 (6.8) | 6 (10.2) | 0.509 |
| Prior PCI, n (%) | 24 (20.3) | 17 (28.8) | 7 (11.9) | 0.022 |
| Prior CABG, n (%) | 5 (4.2) | 1 (1.7) | 4 (6.8) | 0.364 |
| Prior BAV, n (%) | 2 (1.7) | 1 (1.7) | 1 (1.7) | 1.000 |
Values are expressed as either mean ± SD or absolute frequency (percentage). STS, Society of Thoracic Surgeons. EuroScore, European System for Cardiac Operative Risk Evaluation. PCI, percutaneous coronary intervention. CABG, coronary artery bypass grafting. BAV, balloon aortic valvuloplasty.
3.2. MSCT Parameters
Preprocedural MSCT parameters are shown in Table 2. Among the three cusps in the 118 patients, the highest calcium score was observed in the noncoronary cusps (255.4 ± 159.8 mm3).
Table 2.
Multislice computed tomography results.
| Overall (n = 118) | Noneccentric calcification group (n = 59) | Eccentric calcification group (n = 59) | p value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Preprocedural MSCT parameters | ||||
| Calcium score | ||||
| All cusps (mm3) | 581.8 ± 366.5 | 429.6 ± 333.3 | 733.9 ± 335.8 | <0.001 |
| Noncoronary cusp (mm3) | 255.4 ± 159.8 | 158.0 ± 119.5 | 352.8 ± 133.9 | <0.001 |
| Right-coronary cusp (mm3) | 184.4 ± 168.0 | 140.2 ± 121.7 | 228.5 ± 195.3 | 0.004 |
| Left-coronary cusp (mm3) | 142.7 ± 105.3 | 133.1 ± 107.8 | 152.3 ± 102.7 | 0.326 |
| Delta calcium scores (ΔCS) (mm3) | 175.8 ± 135.3 | 80.4 ± 37.0 | 271.3 ± 130.6 | <0.001 |
|
| ||||
| Postprocedural MSCT parameters | ||||
| THV stent frame | ||||
| Length of the longest stent frame (mm) | 20.81 ± 2.04 | 20.33 ± 2.02 | 21.29 ± 1.95 | 0.010 |
| Length of the shortest stent frame (mm) | 19.29 ± 1.82 | 19.03 ± 1.81 | 19.56 ± 1.80 | 0.115 |
| Valve distortion score (VDS) (mm) | 1.52 ± 0.82 | 1.31 ± 0.82 | 1.73 ± 0.76 | 0.004 |
| THV cross-sectional eccentricity index | ||||
| THV inflow | 4.08 ± 2.40 | 4.04 ± 2.47 | 4.13 ± 2.35 | 0.841 |
| THV annulus | 4.49 ± 2.83 | 4.48 ± 2.86 | 4.49 ± 2.83 | 0.983 |
| THV mid | 4.23 ± 2.71 | 3.90 ± 2.23 | 4.56 ± 3.11 | 0.189 |
| THV outflow | 2.48 ± 1.50 | 2.24 ± 1.49 | 2.73 ± 1.48 | 0.080 |
Values are expressed as either mean ± SD. THV, transcatheter heart valve. MSCT, multislice computed tomography.
Of these, 59 (50%) were assigned to the noneccentric calcification group (ΔCS < 148.5 mm3), while 59 patients (50%) were assigned to the eccentric calcification group (ΔCS ≥ 148.5 mm3). The total calcium score of all the cusps was significantly lower in the noneccentric calcification group compared with those of the eccentric group (429.6 ± 333.3 mm3 vs. 733.9 ± 335.8 mm3, p < 0.001). Furthermore, the noncoronary cusp and the right-coronary cusp calcium scores were also significantly lower in the noneccentric calcification group compared with those of the eccentric calcification group.
On average, patients underwent MSCT 5.7 days after TAVI. Table 2 shows the parameters of THV measured using postprocedural MSCT. VDS was significantly lower for the noneccentric calcification group than those in the eccentric calcification group (1.31 ± 0.82 mm vs. 1.73 ± 0.76 mm, p < 0.004) (Figure 2). The longest stent frames were most frequently observed in the noncoronary cusp, while the shortest stent frames were most often observed in the left-coronary cusp. No significant between-group differences were observed in cross-sectional eccentricity indexes at any part of the THV levels (THV inflow, native annulus, mid-THV, and THV outflow).
Figure 2.
The effects of aortic valvular calcium eccentricity on the valve distortion score. Valve distortion score (VDS) was significantly lower for the noneccentric calcification group compared with those of the eccentric calcification group.
3.3. Procedural Details
Procedural details are presented in Table 3. No significant difference was observed in the THV size between noneccentric and eccentric calcification groups. One patient needed a second valve due to valve migration. The most frequently used THVs were 23 mm in both groups. Predilatation and postdilatation were performed in 63 (53.4%) and 31 (26.3%) patients, respectively. The rate of predilatation was lower in the noneccentric group, compared with those of the eccentric calcification group. Nominal delivery balloon volume, overfilling volume (≥1 mL additional volume), and underfilling volume (≥1 mL less volume) were used in 63 (53.4%), two (1.7%), and 53 (44.9%) patients, respectively. No significant difference was observed in the delivery balloon volume between the two groups.
Table 3.
Procedural details.
| Overall (n = 118) | Noneccentric calcification group (n = 59) | Eccentric calcification group (n = 59) | p value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| THV size (mm) | 0.400 | |||
| 20 | 13 (11.0) | 7 (11.9) | 6 (10.2) | |
| 23 | 60 (50.8) | 34 (57.6) | 26 (44.1) | |
| 26 | 40 (33.9) | 16 (27.1) | 24 (40.7) | |
| 29 | 5 (4.2) | 2 (3.4) | 3 (5.1) | |
| Access route | ||||
| Transfemoral, n (%) | 118 (100) | 59 (100) | 59 (100) | 1.000 |
| Predilatation, n (%) | 63 (53.4) | 23 (39.0) | 40 (67.8) | 0.003 |
| Postdilatation, n (%) | 31 (26.3) | 18 (30.5) | 13 (22.0) | 0.403 |
| Delivery balloon volume | 0.062 | |||
| Nominal volume, n (%) | 63 (53.4) | 36 (61.0) | 27 (45.8) | |
| Over filling volume, n (%) | 2 (1.7) | 2 (3.4) | 0 (0) | |
| Under filling volume, n (%) | 53 (44.9) | 21 (35.6) | 32 (54.2) | |
| Valve oversizing ratio (%) | 21.1 (12.3–26.6) | 19.9 (10.4–25.7) | 21.2 (14.0–28.1) | 0.176 |
Values are expressed as median (interquartile) or absolute frequency (percentage). THV, transcatheter heart valve.
3.4. TTE Parameters
TTE parameters are shown in Table 4. No significant difference was observed in the aortic valve area (AVA) and AVPG between noneccentric and eccentric calcification groups using the preprocedural TTE (AVA; 0.66 ± 0.15 cm2 vs. 0.64 ± 0.14 cm2, p=0.458, AVPG; 46.6 ± 20.2 mmHg vs. 49.7 ± 17.2 mmHg, p=0.376). The noneccentric calcification group had a less maximum aortic gradient than the eccentric calcification group (75.4 ± 26.0 mmHg vs. 87.1 ± 26.9 mmHg, p=0.018).
Table 4.
Transthoracic echocardiogram parameters.
| Overall | Noneccentric calcification group | Eccentric calcification group | p value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Peri-procedural TTE parameters | n = 118 | n = 59 | n = 59 | |
| Preprocedural TTE | ||||
| Aortic valve area (cm2) | 0.65 ± 0.14 | 0.66 ± 0.15 | 0.64 ± 0.14 | 0.458 |
| Mean gradient (mmHg) | 48.2 ± 18.8 | 46.6 ± 20.2 | 49.7 ± 17.2 | 0.376 |
| Maximum gradient (mmHg) | 81.2 ± 27.0 | 75.4 ± 26.0 | 87.1 ± 26.9 | 0.018 |
| Left ventricular ejection fraction (%) | 59.8 ± 11.7 | 59.4 ± 12.7 | 60.3 ± 10.6 | 0.663 |
| Postprocedural TTE | ||||
| Aortic valve area (cm2) | 1.72 ± 0.30 | 1.67 ± 0.26 | 1.78 ± 0.33 | 0.043 |
| Mean gradient (mmHg) | 11.5 ± 4.6 | 11.8 ± 4.5 | 11.1 ± 4.8 | 0.424 |
| Maximum gradient (mmHg) | 22.3 ± 8.3 | 22.8 ± 8.4 | 21.7 ± 8.3 | 0.485 |
| Paravalvular leak, n (%) | 0.647 | |||
| None/trivial | 94 (79.7) | 48 (81.4) | 46 (78.0) | |
| Mild | 24 (20.3) | 11 (18.6) | 13 (22.0) | |
| Moderate | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | |
| Severe | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | |
| 30-day TTE | ||||
| Aortic valve area (cm2) | 1.66 ± 0.31 | 1.62 ± 0.27 | 1.71 ± 0.34 | 0.117 |
| Mean gradient (mmHg) | 13.1 ± 5.0 | 14.0 ± 5.0 | 12.3 ± 5.0 | 0.079 |
| Maximum gradient (mmHg) | 25.0 ± 9.7 | 26.1 ± 9.4 | 23.8 ± 9.9 | 0.194 |
| Paravalvular leak, n (%) | 0.261 | |||
| None/trivial | 70 (59.3) | 38 (64.4) | 32 (54.2) | |
| Mild | 48 (40.7) | 21 (35.6) | 27 (45.8) | |
| Moderate | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | |
| Severe | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | |
|
| ||||
| 1-year TTE | n = 89 | n = 40 | n = 49 | |
| Aortic valve area (cm2) | 1.59 ± 0.34 | 1.56 ± 0.32 | 1.62 ± 0.36 | 0.394 |
| Mean gradient (mmHg) | 13.9 ± 6.6 | 14.0 ± 6.4 | 13.9 ± 6.8 | 0.901 |
| Maximum gradient (mmHg) | 26.3 ± 12.1 | 25.7 ± 12.1 | 26.7 ± 12.2 | 0.703 |
| Paravalvular leak, n (%) | 0.172 | |||
| None/trivial | 52 (58.4) | 27 (67.5) | 25 (51.0) | |
| Mild | 35 (39.3) | 13 (32.5) | 22 (44.9) | |
| Moderate | 2 (2.2) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (4.1) | |
| Severe | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0.0 (0.0) | |
Values are expressed as either mean ± SD or absolute frequency (percentage). TTE, transthoracic echocardiogram.
No significant difference was observed in the degree of PVL and AVPG between noneccentric calcification group and eccentric calcification group at 30-day follow-up TTE (Table 4). In addition, VDS was not associated with the degree of PVL and AVPG (Figures 3(a) and 3(c)).
Figure 3.
The association of valve distortion score with paravalvular leak and aortic valvular pressure gradient. The degree of valve distortion score (VDS) was not associated with a 30-day paravalvular leak (PVL) (a) and aortic valvular pressure gradient (AVPG) (c). The VDS was also not associated with the degree of PVL (b) and AVPG (d) at 1-year follow-up transthoracic echocardiogram.
One-year follow-up TTE data were obtained in 89 (75.4%) patients. No significant difference was observed in the degree of PVL and AVPG between noneccentric calcification group and eccentric calcification group, and VDS was not associated with the degree of PVL and AVPG at 1-year follow-up TTE (Table 4 and Figures 3(b) and 3(d)).
3.5. Clinical Outcomes
Median clinical follow-up period was 743 (interquartile range: 504–1,074) days. No adverse events were observed including all-cause death and requiring hospitalization for valve-related symptoms or worsening congestive heart failure up to 30 days of follow-up. The cumulative rates of all-cause death (VDS 0.0∼0.9 mm group vs. VDS 1.0∼1.9 mm group vs. VDS 2.0∼2.9 mm group vs. VDS 3.0∼ mm group: 10.7% vs. 11.7% vs. 8.7% vs. 0.0%; p=0.800), rehospitalization for valve-related symptoms or worsening congestive heart failure (21.4% vs. 10.0% vs. 13.0% vs. 14.3%; p=0.545), and valve thrombosis (7.1% vs. 5.0% vs. 4.3% vs. 0.0%; p=0.885) at 2 years were not significantly different by degree of VDS. Figure 4 shows Kaplan-Meier curves of all-cause death free and rehospitalization free survival rates.
Figure 4.
Kaplan-Meier curves of all-cause death free and rehospitalization free survival rates. There were no significant differences in the all-cause death free and rehospitalization free survival rates among various valve distortion scores (VDS).
4. Discussion
Findings showed that (1) eccentric calcification was associated with greater longitudinal THV distortion than noneccentric calcification of the aortic valve (Figure 5). On the other hand, (2) eccentric calcification was not associated with the cross-sectional THV eccentricity. In addition, (3) longitudinal THV distortion was not associated with PVL grade and AVPG at 30-day and 1-year TTE. Moreover, (4) longitudinal THV distortion did not affect the cumulative rates of adverse clinical events (all-cause death, rehospitalization, and valve thrombosis) at 2-year clinical follow-up.
Figure 5.
Eccentricity of aortic valvular calcification and transcatheter heart valve distortion. Eccentricity of aortic valvular calcification was associated with longitudinal distortion of Edwards SAPIEN3 (ES3, Edwards Lifesciences, Irvine, California).
4.1. Eccentric Calcification and THV Distortion
Studies have revealed that eccentric calcification caused device deformation and adverse events in procedures other than TAVI. During PCI procedures, stent implantation in severely calcified lesions can result in less optimal stent expansion, mispositioning, and stent fracture [6–8, 19]. In addition, calcified plaques are associated with side branch stenosis after main branch stenting due to stent migration to the side opposite to the side where there is severe calcification [20]. Eccentric calcification is also associated with increased risk of endoleak in the procedure of endovascular therapies for abdominal aortic aneurysms and hemodynamic instability in the procedure of carotid angioplasty [21, 22]. Thus, we evaluated the effects of eccentric calcification of the aortic valve on the distortion of THV and the impact of THV distortion on THV functions and clinical impact in current study. Some potential mechanisms of these THV distortions were considered in this study. Severe calcification sites push the THV toward the mild calcification sites. Furthermore, because the THV delivery balloon is semicompliant, the delivery balloon may expand in a nonuniform manner within the eccentric calcification site. The cells of the THV stent frame are fully opened in mildly calcified sites, but not in sites with severe calcification. Thus, longitudinal THV distortions can possibly occur in aortic valves with eccentric calcification.
No significant between-group difference was observed in the cross-sectional eccentricity index between the noneccentric and eccentric calcification groups. This might be due to improvements in radial strength as devices used evolved (ES3 has larger cells and wider strut angles than the SAPIEN XT; Edwards Lifesciences, Irvine, California) [23].
4.2. Impacts of THV Distortion on TTE Parameters and Clinical Outcomes
In spite of these adverse effects related to device deformation due to severe eccentric calcification, THV distortion did not affect the severity of PVL and AVPG, as measured during the 30-day follow-up TTE in this study. This significant PVL (>moderate) low rate may be due to the improvements made to the THV device. The S3 has an outer polyethylene terephthalate cuff, which prevents significant PVL [23].
Additionally, the THV distortion was not associated with TTE parameters (degree of PVL and AVPG) at 1-year follow-up. Previous studies reported that THV has good durability in mid- to long-term follow-ups [24–27]. However, the association between THV distortion due to eccentric calcification and THV durability is not well known. This study revealed that THV maintains excellent functions regardless of longitudinal THV distortion in midterm follow-up TTE.
Moreover, this study revealed that the degree of THV distortion was not associated with the following adverse events: cumulative rates of all-cause death, rehospitalization for valve-related symptoms or worsening congestive heart failure, and valve thrombosis at 2-year clinical follow-up. The fact that THV kept good functions regardless of THV distortion might contribute to these positive clinical outcomes.
There are some reports which evaluated the durability of THV [28]. Most of them showed the favorable durability of THV. However, the relationship between THV function (durability) and severe eccentric calcification or THV distortion has not been fully elucidated. In addition, Blackman et al. reported that median duration of moderate structural valve degeneration was about 6 years following TAVI [24]. Thus, we cannot easily conclude that THV distortion does not affect the THV function, although current study added the novel information that severe eccentric calcification was associated with longitudinal THV distortion, but longitudinal THV distortion was not associated with THV dysfunction and adverse clinical events during midterm follow-up. Studies with large number of patients and long-term follow-up are warranted.
4.3. Study Limitations
This study has several limitations. First, this was an observational single-center study. Second, this study was conducted with a relatively small patient cohort. Third, patients without postprocedure MSCT scans were excluded in this study. Therefore, selection bias cannot be excluded. Fourth, this study only evaluated the relationship between the eccentricity of calcification in aortic valvular leaflet and THV distortion. Thus, we cannot exclude the possibility that calcium outside the valve (such as left ventricular outflow tract) affected the THV distortion. Fifth, we focused on the relationship between degree of VDS and PVL in the current study. However, there is a possibility that other confounding factors might affect the degree of PVL. Sixth, the number of patients with VDS larger than 2 mm was relatively small (25.4%). Thus, we cannot exclude the possibility that the results were affected by the small number of them. To solve this problem, further multicenter registry with large number of patients is needed. Finally, this study was conducted with only midterm follow-up. Therefore, whether this distortion of THV impacts clinical outcomes or not is unknown within the context of long-term follow-up. Large numbers of patients and longer follow-up studies are needed. Several prospective randomized trials (the PARTNER 3 trial, the Medtronic Evolut low-risk trial) showed excellent short-term outcomes after TAVI in low-risk patients [29, 30]. Based on these trials, indication of TAVI is expected to expand. Before that, long-term results need to be evaluated whether THV distortions are associated with deterioration or adverse clinical outcomes.
5. Conclusions
Eccentricity of aortic valvular calcification was associated with longitudinal, but not cross-sectional, distortion of the THV stent frame. However, this longitudinal THV distortion was not associated with the degree of PVL and AVPG, and clinical adverse events in midterm follow-up.
Abbreviations
- AS:
Aortic stenosis
- AVA:
Aortic valve area
- AVPG:
Aortic valvular mean pressure gradient
- ΔCS:
Delta calcium score
- ES3:
Edwards SAPIEN3
- MSCT:
Multislice computed tomography
- PCI:
Percutaneous coronary interventions
- PVL:
Paravalvular leak
- TAVI:
Transcatheter aortic valve implantation
- THV:
Transcatheter heart valve
- TTE:
Transthoracic echocardiogram
- VDS:
Valve distortion score.
Data Availability
The data used to support the findings of this study are included within the article.
Conflicts of Interest
Dr. Naganuma is a clinical proctor for Edwards Lifesciences and Medtronic. All other authors have no relationships relevant to the contents of this paper to disclose.
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Data Availability Statement
The data used to support the findings of this study are included within the article.