Abstract
The present investigation was carried out to study the effect of various levels of various multigrain viz., finger millet, pearl millet and fenugreek powder on chapatti (Multigrain chapatti with spices). The multigrain powders were blended in whole-wheat flour along with spices and chapatti flour mixes were prepared. Chapatti composite flour was evaluated for proximate analysis, colour, rheological (viz, amylographic and farinographic) properties and compared with control wheat flour chapatti. Farinograph properties showed that in general dough development time increased in the composite flours. The pasting temperature, peak viscosity, hot paste viscosity, cold paste viscosity, breakdown, setback values were influenced by the addition of other grain flour to wheat flour. The chapatti was evaluated for proximate composition viz. moisture, ash, alcoholic acidity, protein, fat, dietary fiber, carbohydrate, calorific values; sensory analysis, colour determination, texture and microbial analysis. Chapatti prepared with composite flour with finger millet, pearl millet and fenugreek powder were found to be superior over the control chapatti sample. Storage studies of chapatti were carried out for a period of one month at room temperature 25 ± 2 °C and freezer at 4 °C and were found to be suitable for consumption and palatable with desirable characteristics of sensory, texture, appearance, colour and aroma.
Keywords: Multigrain, Chapatti, Rheology, Spices, Storage study
Introduction
In India, wheat based traditional products are chapatti, puri, phulka, tandoori roti, north Indian parottha, south Indian parottha, nan, batura and other similar products. North Indian parottha is prepared from whole-wheat flour, salt, refined oil and water. Wheat flour is used in India, Pakistan, Middle East and North East countries for the production of chapatti in most of the cases. In northern part of India whole wheat flour is consumed mostly for the production of unleavened flat bread locally known as “Chapatti”. The baking industry now a day started working on health products such as high fiber, high protein, low calorie etc. because of increasing health consciousness amongst common population. Blending of two or more whole grains which are rich in protein, dietary fiber, minerals in staple food items are considered beneficial for health. Chapatti is usually from a simple recipe consisting of flour, salt and water in household. Legumes have been known as ‘‘a poor man’s meat’’. They supply protein, complex carbohydrates, fiber and essential vitamins and minerals to the diet, which are low in fat and sodium and contain no cholesterol. Legumes have been identified as low glycemic index food (Bornet et al. 1997). A low glycemic index food are very important in the dietary treatment of diabetes mellitus, increases satiety, facilitate the control of food intake and has other health benefits for healthy subject in terms of post-prandial glucose and lipid metabolism (Kadam et al. 2012). The use of multigrain offers a good opportunity to improve the taste and nutritional quality of chapatti. The nutritive value of flat bread depends entirely on the chemical composition of the flour and other ingredients used for its preparation.
Wheat is staple food grain in India and is considered as a good source of protein, minerals, B-group vitamins and dietary fiber. It helps in preventing both heart diseases and cancer. Fiber and certain starches in whole grains ferment in the colon and form substances that may block the cancer-promoting effects of bile acids (Kumar et al. 2011).
Finger millet is excellent source for various nutrients and even superior to other common cereals. It contains a high amount of calcium (344 mg) which is an essential macro-nutrient necessary for growing children, pregnant women and elderly people. Though finger millet has a low fat content (1.5%), its fatty acids are predominantly oleic (49%), linoleic (25%) and palmitic acids (25%). The dietary fiber and polyphenols in finger millet are known to offer several health benefits such as antidiabetic, antioxidant, hypocholesterolaemic, antimicrobial effects and protection from diet related chronic diseases to its regular consumers.
Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) also known as Bajra, is a cereal crop grown in tropical semi-arid regions of the world primarily in Africa and Asia. Bajra is well adapted to production systems characterized by low rainfall (200–600 mm), low soil fertility, and high temperature (Nambiar et al. 2011). In addition to their nutritive value, several potential health benefits such as delaying gastric emptying, supplying gastrointestinal bulk, preventing cancer, cardiovascular diseases, reducing tumor incidence, lowering blood pressure, risk of heart disease, cholesterol and rate of fat absorption are described by Johari et al. (2016). It has high energy, has less starch, high fiber (1.2 g/100 g, most of which is insoluble), 8–15 times greater α-amylase activity as compared to wheat, has low glycaemic index (55). It is rich in B-vitamins, potassium, phosphorous, magnesium, iron, zinc, copper and manganese.
Trachyspermum ammi L. commonly known as ajwain. Ajwain seeds yield 2–5% brownish essential oil, with thymol as the major constituent along with p-cymene, γ- terpinene, α-pinene, β-pinene and α-terpinene. The essential oil extracted from the seeds of ajwain exhibited insecticidal activity against Callosobruchus chinensis in the ovi-position step as well as egg hatching and developmental inhibitory activities. Ajwain is rich in protein, carbohydrates, fat, minerals, fiber, calcium, phosphorus, iron, carotene, thiamine, riboflavin and niacin. It is responsible for a wide range of biological properties. It has traditionally been used as a medicinal plant for the treatment of indigestion and dyspepsia and many other gastric disorders (Chahal et al. 2017). Fenugreek having antidiabetic, antifertility, anticancer, antimicrobial, antiparasitic, lactation stimulant and hypocholesterolemic effects (Wani and Kumar 2016). Beside its medicinal value, it is also used as a part of various food product developments as food stabilizer, adhesive, and emulsifying agent.
Ferula foetida commonly known as “Hing” have shown promising therapeutic value due to the presence of various therapeutic phytoconstituents such as terpenoids, sulfide derivatives, volatile oil, phenols, minerals and the various pharmacological actions such as the antioxidant, antimicrobial, antifungal, anticancer, antidiabetic. The oleo gum resin essentially contains sesquiterpene, coumarins, volatile disulphide’s, free ferulic acid and some ferulic acid esters. It also been used since centuries for treating gastric upset and various abdominal disorders. It has antiviral activity which is active against influenza A (H1N1) virus (Kareparamban et al. 2012). Pasting and dough making properties of composite flours were studied by Katyal et al. (2019). Indian wheat varieties were evaluated for the noodles and muffin making (Kaur et al. 2015; Singh et al. 2016).
Among, all flat breads used in India, chapatti is a most commonly consumed and staple for the large population. Hence the objective of the present work is planned to develop chapatti by using the various grains and spices to improve the nutritional and sensory quality. The common additives were used for the further extension of shelf life of developed chapatti.
Materials and methods
Composite flour preparation
Flours were prepared using various percentage of wheat flour along with millets flours based on initial trials. For the control, W (Wheat) 100% of flour were taken, other samples were prepared by mixing of composite flour in different ratio with the pre-determined amount WB (WHEAT:BAJRA, 90:10), WR (WHEAT:RAGI, 90:10), WBr (WHEAT:BAJRA:RAGI, 75:15:10) WbR (WHEAT:BAJRA:RAGI, 75:10:15). The spices added in the samples such as fenugreek powder (2 g), ajwain seeds (1.5 g) and hing (1.5 g).
Rheological properties of flours
Rheological characteristics of the flours were evaluated by farinograph and amylograph, Brabendar GmbH & Co. KG, Duisburg, Germany. Farinograph were produced by the constant flour weight method using 50 g of flour (AACC, method 54.21 1976) (Morad et al. 1984). Water absorption, development time and stability time were measured. Amylograph were produced by placing a 15% suspension of the test flour in the amylograph bowl. The suspension was heated from 25 to 95 °C at a uniform rate of 1.5 °C min−1 and under constant stirring (75 rpm). The sample was maintained at 95 °C for 30 min (first holding period) while being stirred continuously. The paste was then cooled at the specified rate to 50 °C and held for 30 min (second holding period). Farinograph and amylograph measurements were reported as means of triplicate determinations.
Dough and chapatti preparation
The spice mix was prepared using the ingredients such as fenugreek powder (2 g), ajwain seeds (1.5 g), hing (1.5 g), salt (2 g) and oil (5 g). Chapatti dough was prepared using various concentration of different wheat flour with that of millets flours in combination as specified above and the ground spices were mixed in above concentration per 100 g flour sample in dry form. The dough of control and composite whole wheat flour samples were prepared without spices and oil. The dough was formed by addition of 75 ml of water, mixed at 132 rpm for 1 min, 284 rpm for 2 min and at 132 rpm for 1 min until dough kneading. The dough was removed from the mixer, covered with a wet cloth and was set aside to rest for 15 min at room temperature (25 ± 1 °C). The dough was divided into round balls of 20 g each. The dough balls were pressure rolled with the help of 8 cm dia and 40 cm length wooden pin roller to form a sheet of 15 cm diameter and 2 mm thickness. The chapattis were baked on the electrical hot plate at 230 ± 5 °C on one side for 1 min and on other side for 1 min 30 s. Then chapatti was transferred on gas oven for puffing at 230 ± 5 °C for 20 s. The hot chapattis were pre-cooled on hollow wooden stand for about 5 min, then packed in high density polyethylene (HDPE) and sealed pouches of 60 µm gauges by sealing machine.
Sensory evaluation
Appearance, tearing strength, pliability, aroma, eating quality and overall quality were confirmed by fifteen semi-trained panelists from the Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore, India. The samples were evaluated based on a 10-point hedonic scale with 1 representing the least score (dislike extremely) and 10 as the highest score (like extremely). The sensory laboratory was well equipped with good lighting, airflow and free of odour. The panelists were instructed to rinse their mouth thoroughly with potable water in between samples evaluations and they were requested to taste the chapatti samples one by one.
Chemical characteristics of flour and chapatti
Flour and chapatti were analyzed for moisture (AACC method, 44-19 1995) and ash contents as per the standard (AACC method, 08-01 1986). Total protein content was determined using the micro-Kjeldahl procedure with a nitrogen-to-protein conversion factor of 5.70 (AACC 46-12 1983). Alcoholic acidity was determined by extraction method. Fat content was determined by the Soxhlet method using petroleum benzene (B. P. 40–60 °C) as the solvent. Carbohydrate was estimated by difference [Percentage carbohydrate content = [100 − (moisture% + ash% + protein% + fat%)]. Total dietary fibre (TDF), soluble dietary fibers (SDF) and insoluble dietary fiber (IDF) contents were estimated according to enzymatic–gravimetric method. Calorific values were determined by the formula = [fat × 9 + protein × 4 + carbohydrate × 4]. All the sample analysis was carried out in triplicate and average value was expressed.
Flour and chapatti color (L*, a* and b*)
The color of the flour and chapatti was measured using Hunter Lab color measuring system (Color measuring Labscan XE system, USA), and the instrument was adjusted for reflectance, Illuminant D65 and visual angle of 10°. The colorimeter was calibrated with a standard white and black plate. A standard white board made from Barium sulphate (100% reflectance) was used as a perfectly white object for setting the instrument with illuminant. On L, a, b system, values or degree of whiteness or blackness is represented by L and the chromatic portion of the space is plotted on rectangular Cartesian coordinates. Red is represented by +a, green is represented by −a, yellow by +b, and blue by −b (Giese, 2000). The flour and chapatti sample was placed in the sample holder and the reflectance was auto-recorded for the wavelength ranging from 360 to 800 nm.
Textural characteristics of chapatti
Prepared chapatti samples were further tested for tear force (g) performed at room temperature using an LR-5 K Texture Analyzer (Lloyd Instruments Ltd., Hampshire, U.K.) with a 5-kg load cell. A chapatti strip was held at the center of the two clamps. One clamp was attached to the platform while the other was attached to the moving arm of the texture analyzer. The clamps were allowed to pull the chapatti strip apart until it ruptured. The peak force (N), force required to pull the chapatti strip into two pieces and extensibility (mm) were recorded (Kaur et al. 2012).
Additives, basic ingredient, chemical reagent and enzymes
Glycerol monostearate (GMS), Potassium sorbate and acetic acid were used as preservatives. Branded whole-wheat flour, pearl millet flour, finger millet flour, fenugreek powder, ajwain, hing, salt and oil were procured from a local market, Mysore, India. All chemicals used in the analysis were of analytical grade procured from branded companies from India. Thermo-stable a-amylase, amyloglucosidase and protease used for dietary fiber analysis.
Packaging material
Polyethylene pouches of 60 µm gauge (HDPE) 21 × 15 cm obtained from a local market of Mysore, INDIA were used for the storage of chapatti.
Result and discussion
Proximate analysis of flour
The chapatti prepared with the following combinations of wheat, finger millet, pearl millet in different proportion were studied for its chemical composition is reported in Table 1.
W = wheat.
WB = WHEAT:BAJRA (90:10).
WR = WHEAT:RAGI (90:10).
WBr = WHEAT:BAJRA:RAGI(75:15:10).
WbR = WHEAT:BAJRA:RAGI(75:10:15).
(CONTROL SAMPLES WITHOUT SPICES).
Wc = control WHEAT.
WBc = control WHEAT:BAJRA (90:10).
WRc = control WHEAT:RAGI (90:10).
WBrc = control WHEAT:BAJRA:RAGI(75:15:10).
WbRc = controlWHEAT:BAJRA:RAGI(75:10:15).
Table 1.
Proximate and colour analysis of flour
| Proximate Parameter | W | WB | WR | WBr | WbR |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Moisture (%) | 8.19 ± 0.03 | 7.85 ± 0.04 | 8.38 ± 0.05 | 7.71 ± 0.04 | 8.42 ± 0.02 |
| Ash (%) | 1.27 ± 0.05 | 1.23 ± 0.05 | 1.33 ± 0.06 | 1.28 ± 0.04 | 1.39 ± 0.05 |
| Alcoholic acidity (%) | 0.29 ± 0.08 | 0.24 ± 0.05 | 0.30 ± 0.09 | 0.27 ± 0.06 | 0.22 ± 0.04 |
| Protein (%) | 13.77 ± 0.05 | 9.72 ± 0.06 | 9.27 ± 0.04 | 9.31 ± 0.04 | 9.03 ± 0.03 |
| Fat (%) | 2.39 ± 0.06 | 5.57 ± 0.05 | 5.49 ± 0.03 | 4.12 ± 0.09 | 5.61 ± 0.06 |
| Dietary fibre (%) | 8.52 ± 0.05 | 8.19 ± 0.05 | 8.59 ± 0.09 | 8.41 ± 0.05 | 8.65 ± 0.06 |
| Carbohydrate (%) | 70.80 | 74.18 | 73.89 | 76.01 | 73.91 |
| Calorific value (kcal/100 g) | 367.79 | 385.73 | 382.05 | 378.36 | 382.25 |
| Colour of flour | |||||
| L | 78.53 ± 0.02 | 78.21 ± 0.02 | 76.53 ± 0.05 | 75.01 ± 0.03 | 73.88 ± 0.03 |
| a | 0.31 ± 0.03 | 0.20 ± 0.03 | 0.54 ± 0.03 | 0.40 ± 0.02 | 0.68 ± 0.03 |
| b | 10.71 ± 0.05 | 10.77 ± 0.02 | 9.70 ± 0.04 | 9.98 ± 0.03 | 9.02 ± 0.03 |
W = Wheat; WB = Wheat:Bajra (90:10); WR = Wheat:Ragi (90:10); WBr = Wheat:Bajra:Ragi (75:15:10); WbR = Wheat:Bajra:Ragi (75:10:15)
Proximate and colour characteristics of chapatti
The proximate composition of flour samples contain wheat flour for control and composite flour is depicted in Table: 1. From the results, it has been found that the control wheat flour contained moisture (8.19%), ash (1.27%), protein (13.77%), alcoholic acidity (0.29%), fats (2.39%), dietary fibre (8.52%), carbohydrate (70.80%), calorific value (368 kcal/100 g).The above results depicted that the control wheat flour is of medium hard wheat quality. Other composite flour samples WB to WbR contained moisture ranges from (7.85 to 8.42%), ash (1.23 to 1.39%), protein (9.03 to 9.72%), fat (4.12 to 5.61%), dietary fibre (8.19 to 8.65%), alcoholic acidity (0.22 to 0.30%) and carbohydrate (73.89 to 76.01%). The calorific values also found in the range of 378 to 385 kcal/100 g.
Though the protein content of control whole wheat flour sample was 13.77%, the protein content of the composite flour sample influence by the addition of the pearl millet and finger millet and resulted in reduction of protein content (9.03 to 9.72%) due to less amount of protein present in millets. Also, it has been found that as compared to other samples addition of finger millet flour in high amount in sample WbR has resulted in slight decrease in total protein (9.03%), and subsequently by addition of pearl millet with a slight more percentage over the finger millet in sample WB and WBr has influenced the slight increase in protein content over other composite flour. This might be due to slight more protein content of pearl millet over finger millet. While, the finger millet has more influenced on ash content this depicts that it is the rich source of mineral content over the pearl millet. Similar trend is also found in case of dietary fibre content of composite flour samples. Alcoholic acidity of the control whole wheat flour has been found to be 0.29% and other composite flours in the range of 0.22–0.30% indicating that the whole wheat flour might be of slightly old and by addition of pearl millet and finger millet in it has been reduced to 0.22–0.27%. Whereas, by addition of finger millet alone, the alcoholic acidity was found to be 0.30%.
The color measurements of the composite flour substituted with different levels of different flours is presented in Table 1. From the results, it was noticed that the lightness (L*) of the composite chapatti flour displayed a decreasing trend along with the increasing substitution level of flours. The reducing values of L* indicates that the composite flour are darker in color at higher levels of substitution of pearl millet and finger millet. Apart from that, the similar trend was observed for the yellowness value (b*) of the flour sample. The yellowness value was increased from 10.71 to 10.77 for the control to sample WB containing pearl millet flour whereas the trend was decreased from sample WR to WbR due to increase in finger millet percentage. On the other hand, a reverse trend was noticed for increase in greenish color (a) values for the sample WR to WbR, which increased from 0.20 to 0.68. Colour measurements of food products serve an important role as it is one of the characteristics which have direct effect on the initial acceptance and preference of consumers towards the novel food products developed.
Farinographic and amylograph characteristics of the flour
The farinographic studies were carried out for whole wheat and composite flours (Table 2). It has been indicated that the control sample have been found to have water absorption of 73.5%, dough development time (3.36 min), dough stability time (3.16 min), mixing tolerance index (64 BU). Other composite flour samples observed the water absorption in between 71 to 75%, dough development time 3.36 to 4.21 min, dough stability time 2.55 to 3.26 min and mixing tolerance index 62 to 76 BU. Interestingly, it has been observed that water absorption increased to 75% by incorporating only 10% of millet either pearl or finger millet to wheat flour; however, by addition of 25% of millet in combination of pearl and finger millet, water absorption reduced to ~ 71–72%. By addition of finger millet though MTI is at 65BU, the stability has been reduced to 2.55 min indicating the flour not suitable for bread making and can be used for cookies, biscuit or chapatti, whereas other combination of composite flour can be used for bread making.
Table 2.
Farinograph and amylograph characterstics of flour
| Farinograph Parameters | W | WB | WR | WBr | WbR |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Water absorption (%) | 73.5% | 75.0% | 75.0% | 71.0% | 72.3% |
| Dough development time (min) | 03:36 | 04:02 | 03:51 | 04:21 | 04:08 |
| Dough stability (min) | 03:16 | 03:01 | 02:55 | 03:03 | 03:26 |
| Mixing tolerance index (BU) | 64 | 76 | 65 | 62 | 58 |
| Amylograph characteristics of flour | |||||
| Pasting temp (°C) | 65.3 | 76.5 | 67.1 | 64.8 | 68.8 |
| Peak viscosity (BU) | 456 | 433 | 326 | 507 | 303 |
| Hot paste viscosity (BU) | 435 | 327 | 314 | 474 | 275 |
| Cold paste viscosity (BU) | 639 | 643 | 516 | 663 | 484 |
| Breakdown (BU) | 117 | 118 | 94 | 211 | 97 |
| Set back (BU) | 300 | 328 | 284 | 367 | 278 |
W = Wheat; WB = Wheat:Bajra (90:10); WR = Wheat:Ragi (90:10); WBr = Wheat:Bajra:Ragi (75:15:10); WbR = Wheat:Bajra:Ragi (75:10:15)
The amylograph characteristics of the control wheat flour sample and the composite wheat flour of pearl millet and finger millet flour sample were carried out and results are tabulated are shown in Table 2. The results indicated that the whole wheat flour was found to be having pasting temperature (65.3 °C), peak viscosity (456 BU), hot paste viscosity (435 BU), cold plate viscosity (639 BU), breakdown (117 BU), set back (300BU). The pasting temperature of the composite flour samples have been found to be increased and varies from 67.1 to 76.5 °C; however peak viscosity, hot paste viscosity, cold paste viscosity found to be decreasing except in WB sample indicating that incorporation of pearl millet has the reverse phenomenon over the finger millet.
Evaluation of chapatti
Sensory evaluation of chapatti
The results of sensory evaluation of chapatti with respect to appearance, tearing strength, pliability, aroma, eating quality and overall quality are presented in Table 3. It was found that all the sensory parameters of sample (WB) to (WbR), of composite flour chapatti, were significantly affected as compared to the control wheat flour chapatti. the control whole wheat chapatti were found having appearance (9), tearing strength (9), pliability (8), aroma (7), eating quality 19 with the overall acceptability 52 out of 60 which is less acceptable as compare to composite flour chapatti sample prepared with spice mix. However, the scores pertaining of the sample (WB) to (WbR), appearance increased from 7 to 8.5, tearing strength ranges from 7.5 to 8, pliability 7 to 8.5, aroma 7.5 to 9, eating quality 18 to 19. The overall quality of chapatti having composite flour sample also ranges from 47.5 to 53 out of 60. The maximum scores was obtained for the chapatti prepared from composite flour sample WB and WBr with spices mix which was an indication that the chapatti prepared with spices will have better acceptability as compared to the chapatti sample without spices. It has been found those chapatti prepared with the spices were significantly affected as compared to the chapatti sample without spice mainly in appearance and eating quality. Sample (WBc to WbRc), have been found as appearance ranges from 6 to 8, tearing strength ranges from 6.5 to 7.5, pliability 6.5 to 8, aroma 7.5 to 8, eating quality 16 to 19. The overall quality of chapatti having composite flour sample also ranges from 44 to 51.
Table 3.
Sensory evaluation of chapati
| Parameters | Without spices | With spices | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| W | WBc | WRc | WBrc | WbRc | WB | WR | WBr | WbR | |
| Appearance (10) | 9 | 8 | 7.5 | 7 | 6 | 8.5 | 8 | 8 | 7 |
| Tearing strength (10) | 9 | 7.5 | 6.5 | 7 | 7 | 8 | 7 | 8 | 7.5 |
| Pliability (10) | 8 | 8 | 6.5 | 8 | 6.5 | 8.5 | 7 | 8.5 | 7 |
| Aroma (10) | 7 | 8.5 | 8 | 8 | 7.5 | 9 | 7.5 | 9 | 8 |
| Eating quality (20) | 19 | 19 | 16 | 18 | 17 | 19 | 18 | 19 | 18 |
| Overall quality (60) | 52 | 51 | 44.5 | 48 | 44 | 53 | 47.5 | 52.5 | 47.5 |
W = Wheat; WBc = Wheat:Bajra (90:10); WRc = Wheat:Ragi (90:10); WBrc = Wheat:Bajra:Ragi (75:15:10); WbRc = Wheat:Bajra:Ragi (75:10:15); WB = Wheat:Bajra (90:10); WR = Wheat:Ragi (90:10); WBr = Wheat:Bajra:Ragi (75:15:10); WbR = Wheat:Bajra:Ragi (75:10:15) (c—without spices)
Proximate, color and texture measurement of chapatti
From Table 4, the results showed that control sample of wheat flour without spices was reported to contain moisture (25.99%), ash (3.06%), alcoholic acidity (2.09%), protein (12.10%), fat (2.53%), dietary fibre (9.90%), carbohydrate (54.42%) and calorific value (288 kcal/100 g). Chapatti samples of composite flours WBc, WRc, WBrc, WbRc were prepared without spices have been containing moisture in the range of 22.31 to 29.76%, ash 2.63 to 3.07%, protein 7.13 to 8.13%, fat 1.32 to 3.52%, dietary fibre 6.61 to 7.03%, carbohydrate 57.49 to 62.69%. The calorific value was recorded in the range of 270 to 297 kcal/100 g. The chapattis sample with composite flour WB, WR, WBr and WbR prepared with added spices viz, fenugreek powder, ajwain seeds, asafoetida and salt were found to be containing moisture 17.85 to 25.82%, ash 2.47 to 3.19%, alcoholic acidity 2.20 to 3.35%, protein 8.06 to 8.88%, fat 5.99 to 7.69%, dietary fibre 8.76 to 10.75%, carbohydrate 55.90 to 61.94%. The calorific value was in the range of 312 to 342 kcal/100 g. The moisture of finger millet incorporated chapatti was found to be more over other sample may be due to ragi flour water retention on baking, The ash content of the chapatti prepared with all spice mix and salt has not increased much as compared to composite flour mix samples without spices. Alcoholic acidity was found less for the composite flour chapatti sample without spices as compared with whole wheat flour chapatti sample with spices, indicating the interaction with the enzymes of millet flours with that of wheat flour, and also due to addition of spices. The fat content of all the chapatti sample with spices has increased as compared to composite flour chapatti sample which might be because of millets flours and few amount of oil that is added in flour while making dough. Dietary fibre of the chapatti was found to be increased over the composite flour may be due to addition of spice mix and hence chapatti can be a recommended as healthy food for the common people as well as for patient on diet control.
Table 4.
Proximate, Colour and texture analysis of chapati at 1st day
| Proximate parameters | Without spices | With spices | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| W | WBc | WRc | WBrc | WbRc | WB | WR | WBr | WbR | |
| Moisture (%) | 25.99 ± 0.04 | 22.31 ± 0.04 | 29.76 ± 0.05 | 26.65 ± 0.05 | 25.72 ± 0.04 | 21.74 ± 0.05 | 25.82 ± 0.04 | 17.85 ± 0.05 | 21.68 ± 0.04 |
| Ash (%) | 3.06 ± 0.04 | 3.07 ± 0.04 | 2.98 ± 0.05 | 2.76 ± 0.04 | 2.63 ± 0.05 | 3.19 ± 0.05 | 2.47 ± 0.05 | 3.16 ± 0.04 | 2.34 ± 0.05 |
| Alcoholic acidity (%) | 2.09 ± 0.01 | 2.26 ± 0.02 | 1.94 ± 0.01 | 2.05 ± 0.02 | 1.88 ± 0.01 | 3.45 ± 0.01 | 2.81 ± 0.01 | 2.35 ± 0.02 | 2.20 ± 0.01 |
| Protein (%) | 12.10 ± 0.06 | 8.13 ± 0.06 | 7.13 ± 0.06 | 7.31 ± 0.03 | 7.34 ± 0.05 | 8.79 ± 0.06 | 8.06 ± 0.05 | 8.88 ± 0.06 | 8.29 ± 0.05 |
| Fat (%) | 2.53 ± 0.04 | 1.57 ± 0.05 | 1.38 ± 0.06 | 3.52 ± 0.05 | 1.32 ± 0.02 | 7.69 ± 0.09 | 6.27 ± 0.06 | 6.62 ± 0.05 | 5.99 ± 0.06 |
| Dietary fibre (%) | 9.90 ± 0.15 | 6.86 ± 0.010 | 6.61 ± 0.12 | 6.67 ± 0.08 | 7.03 ± 0.13 | 10.75 ± 0.12 | 8.76 ± 0.09 | 9.47 ± 0.15 | 9.28 ± 0.12 |
| Carbohydrate (%) | 54.42 | 62.69 | 57.49 | 58.51 | 61.36 | 56.83 | 55.90 | 61.94 | 60.14 |
| Calorific value (kcal/100 g) | 288 | 297 | 270 | 294 | 286 | 328 | 312 | 342 | 327 |
| Sample | Standard | Colour parameters | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| L | 92.56 | 50.38 ± 0.02 | 54.37 ± 0.02 | 49.27 ± 0.02 | 46.29 ± 0.02 | 54.64 ± 0.02 | 50.85 ± 0.02 | 41.98 ± 0.02 | 50.91 ± 0.02 | 45.92 ± 0.03 |
| a | − 1.09 | 4.21 ± 0.03 | 3.25 ± 0.02 | 5.22 ± 0.05 | 5.47 ± 0.03 | 3.28 ± 0.02 | 3.29 ± 0.03 | 4.52 ± 0.03 | 3.50 ± 0.02 | 4.67 ± 0.03 |
| b | 2.82 | 15.99 ± 0.05 | 15.55 ± 0.02 | 13.98 ± 0.03 | 13.53 ± 0.03 | 11.34 ± 0.03 | 15.27 ± 0.02 | 12.38 ± 0.02 | 11.94 ± 0.03 | 13.59 ± 0.03 |
| Texture analysis of chapatti at 1st day | ||||||||||
| Maximum Load (N) | 8.93 ± 0.05 | 1.96 ± 0.39 | 2.49 ± 0.04 | 2.72 ± 0.56 | 4.34 ± 1.67 | 7.66 ± 1.53 | 3.60 ± 0.55 | 5.44 ± 0.39 | 4.56 ± 1.30 | |
| Cohesiveness | 0.33 ± 0.04 | 0.68 ± 0.08 | 0.47 ± 0.08 | 0.60 ± 0.09 | 0.77 ± 0.08 | 0.22 ± 0.06 | 0.51 ± 0.02 | 0.78 ± 0.09 | 0.47 ± 0.08 | |
| Springiness (mm) | 0.51 ± 0.04 | 0.63 ± 0.08 | 0.62 ± 0.05 | 0.87 ± 0.09 | 0.88 ± 0.08 | 0.77 ± 0.08 | 0.48 ± 0.09 | 0.52 ± 0.09 | 0.45 ± 0.05 | |
| Gumminess (N) | 7.83 ± 0.05 | 13.05 ± 0.07 | 7.39 ± 0.07 | 18.96 ± 0.09 | 4.99 ± 0.02 | 7.06 ± 0.09 | 12.93 ± 0.08 | 16.44 ± 0.08 | 10.70 ± 0.05 | |
| Chewiness (N mm) | 4.06 ± 0.05 | 8.35 ± 0.07 | 4.64 ± 0.05 | 16.65 ± 0.08 | 4.41 ± 0.07 | 5.50 ± 0.09 | 6.31 ± 0.05 | 8.63 ± 0.03 | 4.84 ± 0.06 | |
W = Wheat; WBc = Wheat:Bajra (90:10); WRc = Wheat:Ragi (90:10); WBrc = Wheat:Bajra:Ragi (75:15:10); WbRc = Wheat:Bajra:Ragi (75:10:15); WB = Wheat:Bajra (90:10); WR = Wheat:Ragi (90:10); WBr = Wheat:Bajra:Ragi (75:15:10); WbR = Wheat:Bajra:Ragi (75:10:15) (c—without spices)
The colour measurements of the composite flour chapatti substituted with different levels of different flour is depicted in Table 4. In the control chapatti sample the lightness (L), yellowness (b) and greenish (a) values are found to be 50.38, 15.99 and 4.21 respectively. From these results, it was noticed that the lightness (L*) of the composite chapatti without spices were in the range of 46.29 to 54.64, yellowness (b) is 11.34 to 15.55 and greenish (a) is 3.25 to 5.47 respectively; however it was noticed that the lightness (L*) of the composite chapatti with spices were in a range of 41.98 to 50.91, yellowness (b) is 11.94 to 15.27 and greenish (a) is 3.29 to 4.27. The increase in L values may be due to increasing substitution level of pearl millet flours and reduction in finger millet flour in chapatti. The chapatti sample WR is found to be of devoid of the trend with reducing values of L* which indicates the darker in colour may be due to finger millet flour. The yellowness (b) value of composite flour chapatti with spices was decreased as compared to control (15.99) from 11.94 to 15.27 which could be due to incorporation of other millet flour in wheat flour. On the other hand, a reverse trend was noticed for decreased in greenish color (a) values for sample WB (3.29) and WBr (3.50) and increase in case of sample WR (4.52) and WbR (4.67). For the composite flour chapatti sample without spice WBc, WRc, WBrc and WbRc, L value have been found to be 54.37, 49.27, 46.29 and 54.64 respectively. Colour measurements of food products serve an important role as it is one of the characteristics which have direct effect on the initial acceptance and preference of consumers towards the novel food products developed.
The chapatti strip were analyzed for textural properties with a shear force of 5 kg load cell to cut the strips with a 50 mm vertical movement. The clamps were allowed to pull the chapatti strip apart until it ruptured. The result indicated that the peak force to cut the chapatti was found to increase progressively corresponding to the finger millet flour and pearl millet flour substitution levels in the chapatti preparation. The control wheat flour chapatti showed peak force 8.93 N whereas the chapatti made from composite flour sample without spices (WBc, WRc, WBrc and WbRc) showed maximum peak values are 1.96, 2.49, 2.72 and 4.34 N. Comparatively, from the results of chapatti sample with spices (WB, WR, WBr and WbR) maximum load was 7.66, 3.60, 5.44 and 4.56. Hence, results from this study indicate that control wheat chapatti sample to be much harder than other composite flour chapatti. From composite chapatti sample without spices WBc, WRc, WBrc and WrBc sample WBc (1.96) were found lowest peak value, and from chapatti sample with spices WB, WR, WBr and WbR the sample WR has (3.60) lowest peak value which indicated that WBc and WR are the soft amongst other samples.
Microbial analysis of chapatti
Microbiological profile of baked chapattis stored under different temperature conditions such as 4 °C and 37 °C is shown in Table 5 which clearly depicts the growth of yeast and mold, coliforms, measophilic aerobes and measophilic spore formers in various chapatti samples. From the study, it was observed that on 0th day, total count of mesophillic aerobes of the samples W was 14 × 10–2 cfu/g, sample WB was 2 × 10–2 and the sample WBr was 7 × 10–2 as shown in Table 5. The control sample W showed slightly higher total plate count than the other two samples treated. The pathogens like coliforms, salmonella were found to be absent in all the samples. The chapatti stored under the room temperature has shown the 3 log increase in the microbial load and at 7th day the samples was spoiled showing the growth of fungus on the chapatti sample W whereas the chapatti stored at 4 °C were remained stable in the microbial count till 30 days of storage. In case of sample WB and sample WBr the mesophilic count at the storage temperature 4 °C remained constant without significant change in the microbial load. Whereas the samples stored at 37 °C temperature have shown 2 log increase in the total bacterial count. Increase in the spore count was also been noted in the samples at 7th day of storage at 37 °C. The growth of coliforms and salmonella was not noted throughout the storage period of all the samples stored at 4 °C. The chapatti without treatment with 0.2% potassium sorbate, microbiologically became unsafe for consumption after a period of 7th days. The chapatti treated with 0.2% potassium sorbate became safe for the consumption even after 30th day at 4 °C. Similar result was found in that the fully baked chapatti stored at ambient condition, where, mesophilic aerobes count exceeded during 9th week of storage along with the spore formers. Processed baked chapatti was microbiologically safe even after 30 days if stored at 4 °C temperature. The samples stored at 4 °C of both treated and untreated have remained safe.
Table 5.
Microbial analysis of chapatti samples
| Parameters | Temperature | 0th day | 7th day | 15th day | 21th day | 30th day |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sample – W | ||||||
| TPC | 37 °C | 14 × 10–2 | – | – | – | – |
| 4 °C | 12 × 10–2 | 9 × 10–2 | 9 × 10–2 | 8 × 10–2 | ||
| Yeast and mould | 37 °C | 1 × 10–2 | – | – | – | – |
| 4 °C | 1 × 10–2 | 1 × 10–2 | 1 × 10–2 | 3 × 10–2 | ||
| Spore forming | 37 °C | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
| 4 °C | ND | ND | ND | ND | ||
| Coliform | 37 °C | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
| 4 °C | ND | ND | ND | ND | ||
| Salmonella | 37 °C | ND | ND | ND | ND | |
| 4 °C | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | |
| Sample – WB | ||||||
| TPC | 37 °C | 2 × 10–2 | 600 × 10–2 | – | – | – |
| 4 °C | 1 × 10–2 | 3 × 10–2 | 3 × 10–2 | 4 × 10–2 | ||
| Yeast and mould | 37 °C | 1 × 10–2 | 2 × 10–2 | – | – | – |
| 4 °C | 1 × 10–2 | ND | ND | ND | ||
| Spore forming | 37 °C | ND | 500 × 10–2 | ND | ND | ND |
| 4 °C | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | |
| Coliform | 37 °C | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
| 4 °C | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | |
| Salmonella | 37 °C | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
| 4 °C | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | |
| Sample – WBr | ||||||
| TPC | 37 °C | 7 × 10–2 | 469 × 10–2 | – | – | – |
| 4 °C | 260 × 10–2 | 10 × 10–2 | 12 × 10–2 | 16 × 10–2 | ||
| Yeast and mould | 37 °C | 1 × 10–2 | – | – | – | |
| 4 °C | ND | ND | ND | ND | ||
| Spore forming | 37 °C | ND | 150 × 10–2 | ND | ND | ND |
| 4 °C | ND | ND | ND | ND | ||
| Coliform | 37 °C | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
| 4 °C | ND | ND | ND | ND | ||
| Salmonella | 37 °C | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
| 4 °C | ND | ND | ND | ND | ||
(–) = spoiled samples
(ND) = Not detected
Shelf-life studies
Effect of storage on proximate composition, colour and texture at 30th day
The chapatti sample of all the varieties were packed in HDPE bags, sealed and was kept for storage studies at room temperature and in refrigerated conditions. The samples were taken out periodically on 7th day, 15th day, 21st day and 30th day for microbiological analysis, whereas the proximate analysis of the sample were carried out at the end of 30th days.
The proximate analysis studies carried out at 30th day have been reported in Table 6. The above values indicated that there are not much significant changes even in the composition of all the varieties of chapatti samples however it was observed that slight reduction in values of moisture, ash, protein, fat, dietary fiber, carbohydrate and calorific values but increase in alcoholic acidity even in the control samples without spice mix over a period of a month storage.
Table 6.
Proximate and texture analysis of chapatti at 1st and 30th day
| Parameter | Without spices | With spices | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| W | WBc | WRc | WBrc | WbRc | WB | WR | WBr | WbR | ||
| Moisture (%) | 1 day | 25.99 ± 0.04 | 22.31 ± 0.04 | 29.76 ± 0.05 | 26.65 ± 0.05 | 25.72 ± 0.04 | 21.74 ± 0.05 | 25.82 ± 0.04 | 17.85 ± 0.05 | 21.68 ± 0.04 |
| 30 day | 25.95 ± 0.05 | 22.28 ± 0.06 | 29.71 ± 0.05 | 26.60 ± 0.06 | 25.70 ± 0.05 | 21.70 ± 0.04 | 25.78 ± 0.04 | 17.84 ± 0.04 | 21.62 ± 0.05 | |
| Ash (%) | 1 day | 3.06 ± 0.04 | 3.07 ± 0.04 | 2.98 ± 0.05 | 2.76 ± 0.04 | 2.63 ± 0.05 | 3.19 ± 0.05 | 2.47 ± 0.05 | 3.16 ± 0.04 | 2.34 ± 0.05 |
| 30 day | 3.06 ± 0.04 | 3.06 ± 0.05 | 2.97 ± 0.04 | 2.75 ± 0.05 | 2.62 ± 0.04 | 3.19 ± 0.04 | 2.46 ± 0.04 | 3.15 ± 0.05 | 2.33 ± 0.04 | |
| Alcoholic acidity (%) | 1 day | 2.09 ± 0.01 | 2.26 ± 0.02 | 1.94 ± 0.01 | 2.05 ± 0.02 | 1.88 ± 0.01 | 3.45 ± 0.01 | 2.81 ± 0.01 | 2.35 ± 0.02 | 2.20 ± 0.01 |
| 30 day | 2.11 ± 0.06 | 2.28 ± 0.06 | 1.96 ± 0.05 | 2.07 ± 0.05 | 1.90 ± 0.06 | 3.47 ± 0.05 | 2.84 ± 0.04 | 2.37 ± 0.05 | 2.22 ± 0.04 | |
| Texture analysis of chapatti at 1st day and 30th day | ||||||||||
| Maximum load (N) | 1 day | 1.96 ± 0.39 | 2.49 ± 0.04 | 2.72 ± 0.56 | 4.34 ± 1.67 | 7.66 ± 1.53 | 3.60 ± 0.55 | 5.44 ± 0.39 | 4.56 ± 1.30 | 8.92 ± 0.05 |
| 30 day | 2.52 ± 0.16 | 2.55 ± 0.22 | 3.52 ± 0.90 | 6.71 ± 1.12 | 5.31 ± 0.47 | 5.94 ± 0.44 | 5.46 ± 0.95 | 15.67 ± 0.14 | 36.44 ± 0.36 | |
W = Wheat; WBc = Wheat:Bajra (90:10); WRc = Wheat:Ragi (90:10); WBrc = Wheat:Bajra:Ragi (75:15:10); WbRc = Wheat:Bajra:Ragi (75:10:15); WB = Wheat:Bajra (90:10); WR = Wheat:Ragi (90:10); WBr = Wheat:Bajra:Ragi (75:15:10); WbR = Wheat:Bajra:Ragi (75:10:15) (c—without spices)
The effect of storage on colour measurement of chapatti by Hunter Colour lab have been reported in Table 6. From the above results, it showed that during storage of chapatti from the 1st day to 30th day duration, lightness (L) of the chapatti reduced in some sample and increased in some of the samples, and found to be in the range of 45.53 to 56.66 and conclusion can be drawn as such in this regards as the proximate composition values were found to be lowered on storage of most of the chapatti samples. It was also noticed that yellowness (b) is in the range of 11.26 to 15.52 and reduced in case of samples of without spices viz., WBc, WRc, WBrc and increased in case of sample with spice WB, WR, WBr; however trend was reverse in case of WbRc & WbR chapatti sample. The greenish (a) values were in the range of 3.11 to 4.97, and similar trend was found as yellowness values of the composite chapatti with and without spices.
The effect of storage (30 days) on chapatti were analysed for all the textural properties with a shear force of 5 kg load cell to cut the strips with a 50 mm vertical movement. The result indicated that the peak force to cut the chapatti was found to be increased on storage since the reduction in moisture of all the chapatti samples. The chapatti made from composite flour sample without spices (WBc, WRc, WBrc and WbRc) showed maximum peak values were 2.52, 2.55, 3.52 and 6.71 N; however for the chapatti with spices viz., WB, WR, WBr and WbR had shown maximum peak values of 5.31, 5.94, 5.46 and 15.67 respectively. The values were also recorded for the cohesiveness, springiness, gumminess and chewiness of the chapati products and were found to be increasing on storage of 30 days. The cohesiveness value for all the chapatti samples:were recorded in the range of 0.31 to 0.80; the springiness values in the range of 0.60 to 1.01 mm; gumminess values in the range of 5.67 to 25.01 N and chewiness values in the range of 3.43 to 20.56 N.mm.
Conclusion
Composite wheat-based flours were formulated with different millets and spices and evaluated for the physicochemical, rheological and chapatti making properties. All the chemical parameters were found to be suitable with the flour and chapatti making properties. The results showed that the chapatti with spices sample of WBr (75% wheat flour, 15% pearl millet flour and 10% finger millet flour) considered the best as compare to the other composite chapatti samples. The storage studies of the chapatti samples with additives packed in HDPE pouches were carried out at 4 °C for 30 days. Microbial analysis was also carried out with three selective chapatti sample that are W, WB, WBr to see whether the chapatti product is good for consumption. Results of study will eventually benefit consumers as well as able to extend commercial opportunity for chapatti manufacturer. The traditional products like chapattis can be preserved for long term storage, increasing their commercial scope and viability. The millet and spices incorporated chapatti can be used with additional nutritional benefits, alternative to regular wheat flour.
Footnotes
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