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Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences logoLink to Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences
. 2020 Dec 19;28(3):1723–1738. doi: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2020.12.014

Medicinal plants as a fight against murine blood-stage malaria

Mohamed A Dkhil a,b,⁎, Saleh Al-Quraishy a, Esam M Al-Shaebi a, Rewaida Abdel-Gaber a,c, Felwa Abdullah Thagfan d, Mahmood AA Qasem a
PMCID: PMC7938113  PMID: 33732056

Abstract

Objective

Malaria is an infectious parasitic disease affecting most of countries worldwide. Due to antimalarial drug resistance, researchers are seeking to find another safe efficient source for treatment of malaria. Since many years ago, medicinal plants were widely used for the treatment of several diseases. In general, most application is done first on experimental animals then human. In this article, medicinal plants as antimalarial agents in experimental animals were reviewed from January 2000 until November 2020.

Materials and methods

In this systematic review published articles were reviewed using the electronic databases NCBI, ISI Web of knowledge, ScienceDirect and Saudi digital library to check articles and theses for M.Sc/Ph.D. The name of the medicinal plant with its taxon ID and family, the used Plasmodium species, plant part used and its extract type and the country of harvest were described.

Results and conclusion

The reviewed plants belonged to 83 families. Medicinal plants of families Asteraceae, Meliaceae Fabaceae and Lamiaceae are the most abundant for use in laboratory animal antimalarial studies. According to region, published articles from 33 different countries were reviewed. Most of malaria published articles are from Africa especially Nigeria and Ethiopia. Leaves were the most common plant part used for the experimental malaria research. In many regions, research using medicinal plants to eliminate parasites and as a defensive tool is popular.

Keywords: Malaria, Mice, Medicinal plants, Nanoparticles

1. Introduction

Malaria, the most important human parasitic disease, is still a major cause of illness and death worldwide. The infection is transmitted by Plasmodium parasites, of which five species have been reported that infect humans (White 2008). Malarial pathogenesis studies, however, are mainly performed with rodent malaria parasites due to their similarity in genome sequence and pathology to the human parasite (Carlton et al. 2002).

In 90 countries, malaria is endemic; most of these are in Africa. The elimination of malaria is increasing in a growing number of countries (Fig. 1). Globally, the number of malaria-endemic countries in 2000 that recorded less than 10,000 cases of malaria rose from 40 in 2010 to 49 in 2018 (WHO, 2019). Between 2010 and 2018, the incidence rate of malaria decreased globally, from 71 to 57 cases per 1000 population at risk (WHO, 2019). Estimated deaths due to malaria decreased globally from 585,000 to 405,000 cases between 2010 and 2018 (WHO, 2019) (Fig. 2). For malaria prevention and elimination, a total fund of US$ 2.7 billion was being used in 2018.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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Regions with malaria cases in 2000 and their status by 2019 (WHO, 2019).

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

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Estimated number of malaria deaths by WHO region, 2010–2018 (data from World malaria report, 2019).

1.1. Documented drugs from plant source

There is a general agreement in the science community that there is a powerful role of natural products in the exploration of new leads for drug therapy production for human diseases. There is always an urgent and continuing call to look for new antimalarial agents where drug resistance has contributed to the inefficiency of most malaria drugs on the market. Most of those agents used in the treatment of malaria are either extracted from plants or are natural products (Moyo et al., 2020).

In the production of chemotherapeutic antimalarial drugs, medicinal plants play a key role. The use of Artemisia annua (Compositae) and its active compound, artemisinin (Fig. 3), which are actually of major interest (Phillipson and O’Neill, 1987), is part of the traditional Chinese treatment of malaria. Also, Cinchona species are still well known for their antimalarial properties, and the alkaloid quinine (Fig. 3) constituent is still recognized as an effective medication (White, 1985). Moreover, Dichroea febrifuga belonging to family Saxifragaceae is another plant which is used for the production of the antimalarial drug, febrifugine (Fig. 3) (Anonymous, 1975).

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

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Documented drugs from plant source.

In order to protect users of malaria drugs, scientific evaluation of the safety, efficacy and efficiency of medicinal plant preparations is critical. Today, many reports showed that medicinal plants are a possible source of new antimalarial drugs or medicinal products (Moyo et al., 2020).

In order to speed up the production of effective alternative treatments from medicinal plants, sufficient pre-clinical trials supporting their safety and efficacy are needed to provide reliable experimental data that provide a basis for research.

1.2. Models of blood-stage malaria

While there are over 100 Plasmodium species that can infect several vertebrates, it is understood that only five species of plasmodium, P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae, and P. knowlesi can affect humans. While P. berghei, P. chabaudi, P. yoelii, and P. vinckei are four Plasmodium species infecting African rodents that have been widely used in vivo rodent malaria research. This is due to the similarity with the human pathogenic P. falcibarum.

Mouse models of rodent malaria infection are particularly useful for examining the pathological consequences of host-parasite interactions and can assess clinical outcomes of infections such as parasitemia, splenomegaly, immune response and change in histopathological, biochemical and hematological parameters (Good et al., 2015).

1.3. Activity of plant extracts

With the objective of targeting parasite-specific metabolic aspects that are not conveyed by the host, extracts from antimalarial medicinal plants are studied. It is probable that the ingredients of the extract will target the parasite in this direction, while causing minimal host damage.

For instance, the anti-malarial drugs quinine and artemisinin are both of plant origin and are known to be a rich reservoir of bioactive secondary metabolites that contain bioactive anti-malarial compounds like alkaloids and terpenoids that are used in tradition medicine against fever, inflammation and malaria (Moyo et al., 2020).

However, there has been a steady decrease in the rate of malaria infection reduction in recent years the World Health Organization (WHO) has revealed that the fight against malaria with the resources and funding available is now at a crossroads, leaving many children and pregnant women at risk of infection (WHO, 2015, Benelli and Mehlhorn, 2016).

The drug research requires an urgent need for new and improved anti-malarial therapeutics, preferably with novel mechanisms of action to avoid, control or minimize parasite resistance. A cheaper, simpler, more sustainable alternative to most synthetic drugs and pharmaceuticals is offered by the use of medicinal plants in therapy. In addition, they were hardly seen to have any side effects and are accepted with less adverse consequences (Nasri and Shirzad 2013).

In 2018, a cumulative funding of US$ 663 million was spent globally in fundamental research and product growth for malaria. This was a small improvement (an increase of US$ 18 million, or 2.8 percent) from the previous year (WHO, 2019).

2. Methodology

This review included all related published scientific articles from January 2000 to November 2020. This article was conducted by searching the electronic databases NCBI, ISI Web of knowledge and ScienceDirect and Saudi digital library to check articles and thesis for M.Sc/Ph.D.

Relevant studies were reviewed through numerous steps. In the first step, target published articles were identified by using general related terms, such as medicinal plants’ and ‘malaria.’ The second step involved screening the resulting articles by using highly specific keywords, including ‘murine or mice’. The last step of the review focused on selected studies involving the use of medicinal plants against malaria in mice.

We included studies published from January 2000 up to November 2020 on medicinal plants used to treat malaria using mice as animal model. Studies published in the English language were only included.

We excluded papers published before 2000. We excluded in vitro studies, review articles, personal communications and unpublished data.

The reviewers examined each article and independently extracted data on the scientific name, family, local name, and part of the plant used and method of extraction (Tables 1 and Table 2).

Table 1.

Selected medicinal antimalarial plants from January 2000 to November 2020.

Parasite name Plant (Family) Plant Taxon ID*   Studied plant part Extract type Country of harvest Mouse strain References
Plasmodium berghei Leonotis ocymifolia (Lamiaceae) NCBI:txid483802 Leaves Methanol Ethiopia Swiss albino Teklu et al. (2020)
Plasmodium berghe Acacia karroo (Fabaceae) NCBI:txid138024 Leaves Methanol India BALB/c Sachdeva et al. (2020)
Balanites roxburghii (Zygophyllaceae) NCBI:txid2603000 Leaves
Bassia scoparia (Amaranthaceae) NCBI:txid83154 Leaves
Berberis aristata (Berberidaceae) NCBI:txid659592 Leaves
Brassica junea (Cruciferae) NCBI:txid3705 Leaves
Chenopodium album (Amaranthaceae) NCBI:txid3559 Leaves
Chrysanthemum indicum (Asteraceae) NCBI:txid146995 Leaves
Citrullus colocynthis (Cucurbitaea) NCBI:txid252529 Leaves; Seeds
Citrus maxima (Rutaceae) NCBI:txid37334 Leaves
Coriandrum sativum (Apiaceae) NCBI:txid4047 Leaves
Rubus ellipticus (Rosaceae) NCBI:txid59492 Leaves; Fruits
Rumex obtusifolius (Polygonaceae) NCBI:txid3619 Leaves
Salvadora oleoides (Salvadoraeceae) NCBI:txid1173311 Leaves
Saraca asoca (Caesalpiniaceae) NCBI:txid1073321 Leaves
Syngonium podophyllum (Araceae) NCBI:txid267621 Leaves
Syzygium cumini (Myrtaceae) NCBI:txid260142 Leaves
Zanthoxylum acanthopodium (Rutaceae) NCBI:txid1056460 Leaves
Plasmodium berghei Capsicum frutescens (Solanaceae) NCBI:txid4073 Fruits Methanol Ethiopia Swiss albino Habte and Assefa (2020a)
Plasmodium berghei Aloe weloensis (Aloaceae) NCBI:txid1593116 Leaves Leaves Ethiopia Swiss albino Teka et al. (2020)
Plasmodium. Berghei Terminalia neotaliala (Combretaceae) NCBI:txid1799636 Leaves; Stem Aqueous, Methanol; Ethanol; Dichloromethane; Hexane Cameroon Swiss albino Tchatat Tali et al. (2020)
Plasmodium berghei Bersama abyssinica (Francoaceae) NCBI:txid113247 Leaves Methanol Ethiopia Swiss albino Alehegn et al., 2020.
Plasmodium berghei Olea europaea (Oleaceae) NCBI:txid4146 Stem Methanol Ethiopia Swiss albino Hailesilase et al. (2020)
Plasmodium berghei Myrica salicifolia (Myricaceae) NCBI:txid3509 Roots Methanol Ethiopia Swiss albino Kifle et al. (2020)
Plasmodium berghei Aloe pirottae (Aloaceae) NCBI:txid25641 Latex Aqueous Ethiopia Swiss albino Dibessa et al. (2020)
Plasmodium berghei Schinus molle (Anacardiaceae) NCBI:txid43851 Seeds Aqueous Ethiopia Swiss albino Habte et al. (2020b)
Plasmodium berghei Daniellia ogea (Caesalpinioideae) NCBI:txid162734 Roots Ehanol Nigeria Swiss albino Ezenyi et al. (2020)
Andropogon schirensis (Graminaceae) NCBI:txid2057634 Roots
Icacina trichanta (Icacinaceae) Icacina trichanta Leaves
Chasmanthera dependens (Menispermaceae) NCBI:txid341015 Stem
Triumfetta cordifolia (Tiliaceae) NCBI:txid2709013 Leaves
Celtis durandii (Ulmaceae) NCBI:txid289393 Roots
Plasmodium berghei Terminalia brownii (Combretaceae) NCBI:txid1548809 Stem Aqueous, Methanolic Ethiopia Swiss albino Biruk et al. (2020)
Plasmodiumberghei Helianthus annuus (Asteraceae) NCBI:txid4232 Roots; Stems;Seeds; Flowers; Leaves Ethanol Indonesia BALB/c Ekasari et al. (2019)
Plasmodium berghei Terminalia albida (Combretaceae) NCBI:txid39992 Stem Methanol Guinea C57BL/6 Camara et al. (2019)
Plasmodium berghei Combretum molle (Combretaceae) NCBI:txid507414 Stem Methanol Ethiopia Swiss albino Mulaw et al. (2019)
Plasmodium berghei Cordia africana (Boraginaceae) NCBI:txid222081 Leaves Methanol Ethiopia Swiss albino Wondafrash et al. (2019)
Plasmodium berghei Fagara zanthoxyloides (Rutaceae) wfo-0000685053 Leaves Methanol Nigeria Albino Wistar Enechi et al. (2019)
Plasmodium berghei Paspalum scrobiculatum (Poaceae) NCBI:txid173849 Spikelets Ethanol Ghana BALB/C Laryea and Borquaye (2019)
Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae) NCBI:txid42337 Leaves
Acridocarpus alternifolius (Malpighiaceae) NCBI:txid217121 Leaves
Clappertonia fcifolia (Triticeae) NCBI:txid2708755 Leaves
Mitragyna ciliate (Rubiaceae) NCBI:txid170021 Leaves
Parinari congensis (Chrysobalanaceae) NCBI:txid1868823 Stem
Monanthotaxis cafra (Annonaceae) NCBI:txid992735 Leaves
Datura stramonium (Solanaceae) NCBI:txid4076 Leaves
Faurea speciose (Proteaceae) NCBI:txid206258 Leaves
Syzygium guineense (Myrtaceae) NCBI:txid334482 Leaves
Croton penduliforus (Euphorbiaceae) NCBI:txid2708777 Leaves
Plasmodium berghei Euphorbia abyssinica (Euphorbiaceae) NCBI:txid316813 Root Methanol Ethiopia Swiss albino Muluye et al. (2019)
Plasmodium berghei Salvadora persica (Salvadoraceae) NCBI:txid4326 Roots Aqueous Ethiopia Swiss Albino Gebrehiwot et al. (2019)
Balanites rotundifolia (Zygophyllaceae) NCBI:txid1670835 Leaves
Plasmodium berghei Commiphora Africana (Burseraceae) NCBI:txid181237 Stem Methanol; Dichloromethane Tanzania BALB/C Kweyamba et al. (2019)
Dichrostachys cinerea (Fabaceae) NCBI:txid196665
Plasmodium chabaudi Indigofera oblongifolia (Fabaceae) NCBI:txid198899 Leaves Methanol Saudi Arabia C57BL/6 Dkhil et al., 2019, Al-Shaebi et al., 2018, Al-Shaebi et al., 2017, Dkhil et al., 2015
Plasmodium berghei Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae) NCBI:txid124943 Seeds Methanol Burkina Faso C57BL/6 ; BALB/c Habluetzel et al. (2019)
Plasmodium Berghei Zingiber Officinale (Zingiberaceae) NCBI:txid94328 Roots Methanol Ethiopia Swiss Albino Biruksew et al. (2018)
Echinops Kebericho (Asteraceae) NCBI:txid32194 Rhizomes
Plasmodium berghei Aspidosperma pyrifolium (Apocynaceae) NCBI:txid141535 Stem Ethanolic Brazil Swiss albino Ceravolo et al. (2018)
Plasmodium berghei Gardenia ternifolia (Rubiaceae) NCBI:txid1237590 Roots Methanol Ethiopia Swiss albino Nureye et al. (2018)
Plasmodium berghei Rosa damascene Rosaceae NCBI:txid3764 Petals Phenol rich ethyl acetate India Swiss albino Khare et al. (2018)
Plasmodium berghei Picrolemma huberi (Picramniaceae) NCBI:txid459142 Leaves ethanolic Colombia BALB/c Berthi et al. (2018)
Picramnia latifolia (Simaroubaceae ) NCBI:txid681474 Stem; Leaves Petiole Ethanol; Hexane
Plasmodium berghei Ziziphus mauritiana (Rhamnaceae) NCBI:txid157914 Leaves Ethanol Abidjan Swiss albino Attemene et al. (2018)
Anthocleista djalonensis (Loganiaceae) NCBI:txid26470 Stem barks
Plasmodium chabaudi;

P.berghei		 Terminalia macroptera
(Combretaceae)		 NCBI:txid39992 Leaves

Roots		 Ethanol Mali Albino Swiss Haidara et al. (2018)
Plasmodium berghei Lophira alata
(Ochnaceae)		 NCBI:txid549775 Leaves Aquoeus Nigeria ND Falade et al.(2018)
Plasmodium berghei
 Lawsonia inermis
(Lythraceae)		 NCBI:txid141191 Leaves; Seeds; Flowers;Stems Roots Fraxetin; Ehyl acetate India BALB/c Singh et al. (2017a)
Plasmodium. berghei Trema orientalis
(Cannabaceae) 		NCBI:txid63057 Stem Methanol Nigeria Swiss albino Olanlokun et al. (2017)
Plasmodium berghei
 Solanum nigrum
(Solanaceae)		 NCBI:txid4112 Fruits Methanol Iran Swiss albino Haddad et al. (2017)
Teucrium polium
(Lamiaceae)		 NCBI:txid1117157 Aerial parts
Physalis alkekengi
(Solanaceae) 		NCBI:txid33120 Leaves; Fruits
Citrullus colocynthis
(Cucurbitaceae)		 NCBI:txid252529 Fruits
Salix alba
(Salicaceae)		 NCBI:txid75704 Leaves
Achillea millefolium
(Compositae)		 NCBI:txid13329 Flowers
Gossypium herbacum
(Malvaceae)		 NCBI:txid3633 Leaves
Verbena officinalis
(Verbenaceae)		 NCBI:txid79772 Flowers
Portulaca oleracea
(Portulacaceae)		 NCBI:txid46147 Aerial parts
Lavandula angustifolia
(Lamiaceae)		 NCBI:txid39329 Flowers
Plasmodium berghei Holarrhena floribunda
(Apocynaceae)		 NCBI:txid2708850 Leaves Ethanol Lomé, Togo NMRI Hoekou et al. (2017)
Plasmodium berghei Zea mays
(Poacae)		 NCBI:txid4577 Peels Ethanol Nigeria Swiss albino Okokon et al. (2017)
Plasmodium berghei Flueggea virosa
(Phyllanthaceae)		 NCBI:txid283121 Leaves Ethanol India Swiss albino Singh et al. (2017b)
Plasmodium. berghei Copaifera reticulata
(Fabaceae)		 NCBI:txid162716 Whole plant Oleoresin Brazil BALB/c de Souza et al. (2017)
Plasmodium berghei Strychnos mitis
(Loganiaceae)		 NCBI:txid1040902 Leaves Methanol; Aqueous Ethiopia Swiss albino Fentahun et al. (2017)
Plasmodium berghei Heinsia crinita
(Rubiaceae)		 NCBI:txid61937 Stem; Leaves; Fruits Ethanol; Dichloromethane; Methanol Equateur Swiss mice Tshisekedi Tshibangu et al. (2017)
Plasmodium chabaudi;

P. berghei 		Cymbopogon citratus
(Poaceae)		 NCBI:txid66014 Whole plant Aqueous México CBA/Ca Chukwuocha et al. (2016)
Plasmodium chabaudi Punica granatum
(Lythraceae)		 NCBI:txid22663 Peels Methano Saudi Arabia Swiss albino Mubaraki et al. (2016)
Plasmodium berghei Chromolaena odorata
(Asteraceae)		 NCBI:txid103745 Leaves Dichloromethane; Methanol Nigeria Swiss albino Afolayan et al. (2016)
Tithonia diversifolia
(Asteraceae)		 NCBI:txid684020 Leaves
Lawsonia inermis
(Lythraceae)		 NCBI:txid141191 Leaves
Plasmodium yoelii
 Vetiver zizanioides (Poaceae) NCBI:txid167337 Roots Hexan India Swiss albino Dhawan et al. (2016)
Plasmodium berghei Vernonia amygdalina
(Asteraceae)		 NCBI:txid82755 Leaves Ethanol Nigeria Swiss albino Omoregie and Pal (2016)
Plasmodium berghei

 Erythrina schliebenii (Fabaceae) NCBI:txid2590720 Stem Ethyl acetate; Aqeuous Tanzania Swiss albino Nondo et al. (2016)
Holarrhena pubescens (Apocynaceae) NCBI:txid69381 Roots
Phyllanthus nummulariifolius (Euphorbiaceae) NCBI:txid283132 Roots
Caesalpinia bonducella (Caesalpiniaceae) NCBI:txid83961 Roots
Plasmodium berghei Brucea antidysenterica
(Simaroubaceae)		 NCBI:txid459111 seeds aqueous, methanol and chloroform Ethiopia Swiss albino Kefe et al. (2016)
Ocimum lamiifolium
(Nepetoideae)		 NCBI:txid39173 leaves
Plasmodium berghei Alnus nepalensis
(Betulaceae)		 NCBI:txid109066 Leaves Methanol India BALB/c Saxena et al. (2016)
Plasmodium berghei Gongronema latifolium
(Apocynaceae)		 NCBI:txid2020314 Leaves lime juice Nigeria Swiss albino Idowu et al. (2015)
Alstonia boonei
(Apocynaceae)		 NCBI:txid84857 Stem bark
Picralima nitida
(Apocynaceae)		 NCBI:txid52846 Seeds
Plasmodium berghei Landolphia owariensis
(Apocynaceae)		 NCBI:txid141576 Leaves Methanol Nigeria Swiss albino Ezike et al. (2016)
Plasmodium berghei Cassia alata
(Fabaceae)		 NCBI:txid53923 Leaves Dichloromethane; Methane Burkina Faso NMRI Da et al. (2016)
Plasmodium berghei Ocimum suave
(Lamiaceae)		 NCBI:txid39173 Leaves Aqueous; Chloroform; Methanol Kenya Swiss albino Kiraithe et al. (2016)
Plectranthus barbatus
(Lamiaceae)		 NCBI:txid41228 Roots
Zanthoxylum chalybeum
(Rutaceae)		 NCBI:txid1671342 Roots
Plasmodium berghei Ajuga integrifolia
(Lamiaceae)		 NCBI:txid38595 Aerial part Methanol Ethiopia Swiss albino Asnake et al. (2015)
Clerodendrum myricoides
(Lamiaceae)		 NCBI:txid54240 Leaves
Melia azedarach
(Meliaceae)		 NCBI:txid155640 Twig
Peponium vogelii
(Cucurbitaceae)		 NCBI:txid387135 Leaves
Premna schimperi
(Verbenaceae)		 NCBI:txid41393 Leaves
Plasmodium berghei Andropogon leucostachyus
(Poaceae)		 NCBI:txid15314 Aerial part Methanol Brazil BALB/c Lima et al. (2015)
Croton cajucara
(Euphorbiaceae)		 NCBI:txid323033 Leaves
 Chloroform
Xylopia amazonica
(Annonaceae)		 NCBI:txid225838 Aqeuous
Plasmodium berghei Scindapsus hederaceus
(Araceae)		 NCBI:txid258317

Stem		 Ethyl acetate Malaysia ICR Baba et al. (2015)
Shorea ovalis
(Dipterocarpaceae)		 NCBI:txid64590
Zingiber spectabile
(Zingiberaceae)		 NCBI:txid188518
Plasmodium berghei Markhamia tomentosa
(Bignoniaceae)		 NCBI:txid2708893 Leaves Aqueous
 Nigeria Swiss albino Bankole et al. (2016)
Polyalthia longifolia
(Annonaceae)		 NCBI:txid235806
Trichilia heudelotii
(Meliaceae)		 NCBI:txid43894 Stem
Plasmodium berghei Vernonia amygdalina
(Asteraceae)		 NCBI:txid82755 Leaves Aqueous; Ethanol Ethiopia BALB/c Abay et al. (2015)
Plasmodium berghei Alhagi camelorum
(Fabaceae)		 NCBI:txid47037 Whole plant Methanol Iran Swiss albino Esmaeili et al. (2015)
Alhagi camelorum
(Fabaceae)		 NCBI:txid47037 Whole plant
Althaea officinalis
(Malvaceae)		 NCBI:txid145745 Flowers
Bambusa arundinacea
(Poaceae)		 NCBI:txid4581 Gum
Cassia angustifolia
(Fabaceae)		 NCBI:txid53851 Leaves
Carthamus tinctorius
(Asteraceae)		 NCBI:txid4222 Aerial part
Cichorium intybus
(Asteraceae)		 NCBI:txid13427 Roots
Cichorium intybus
(Asteraceae)



 NCBI:txid13427 Aerial part
Convolvulus scammonia
(Convolvulaceae)		 NCBI:txid1428931 Gum resin
Cotoneaster nummularia
(Rosaceae)		 NCBI:txid1804980 Fruit
Cordia myxa
(Boraginaceae)		 NCBI:txid181185 Fruits
Cordia myxa
(Boraginaceae)		 NCBI:txid181185 Flowering branches
Fumaria parviflora
(Fumariaceae)		 NCBI:txid1464625 Leaves
Hedera helix
(Araliaceae)		 NCBI:txid4052 Aerial part
Plantago psyllium
(Plantaginaceae)		 NCBI:txid26867 Seeds
Portulaca oleracea
(Portulacaceae)		 NCBI:txid46147 Seeds
Rosa damascena
(Rosaceae)		 NCBI:txid3765 Flowers
Viola odorata
(Violaceae)		 NCBI:txid97441 Flowers
Viola odorata
(Violaceae)		 NCBI:txid97441 Whole plant
Ziziphus jujuba
(Rhamnaceae)		 NCBI:txid326968 Fruits
Plasmodium chabaudi Indigofera oblongifolia
(Fabaceae)		 NCBI:txid198899 Leaves Methanol Saudi Arabia C57BL/6 Lubbad et al. (2015)
Plasmodium berghei Osyris quadripartite
(Santalaceae)		 NCBI:txid169279 Leaves Aqueous, Chloroform,Methanol Ethiopia Swiss albino Girma et al. (2015)
Plasmodium berghei;

Plasmodium chabaudi 		Ocimum gratissimum
(Lamiaceae )		 NCBI:txid204144 Leaves Ethanol and water Cameroon Swiss albino Tarkang et al. (2014)
Citrus sinensis
(Rutaceae)		 NCBI:txid2711 Leaves
Cymbopogon citratus
(Poaceae)		 NCBI:txid66014 Leaves
Carica papaya
(Caricaceae)		 NCBI:txid3649 Leaves
Psidium guajava
(Myrtaceae)		 NCBI:txid120290 Leaves
Mangifera indica
(Anacardiaceae)		 NCBI:txid29780 Stem; Leaves
Plasmodium berghei Echinops kebericho
(Asteraceae)		 wfo-0000133310 Roots Ethanol Ethiopia Swiss albino Toma et al. (2015)
Plasmodium berghei Maytenus senegalensis
(Celastraceae)		 NCBI:txid256095 Root Ethanol Tanzania Swiss albino Malebo et al. (2015)
Plasmodium berghei Citrus limetta
(Rutacaea)		 NCBI:txid414735 Fruits; Peels Ethanol India Swiss albino Mohanty et al. (2015)
Plasmodium berghei
 Psidium acutangulum
(Myrtaceae)		 NCBI:txid2478882 Stems; Leaves; Fruits Aqueous Framce Swiss albino Houël et al. (2015)
Plasmodium berghei Grewia trichocarpa (Tiliaceae) NCBI:txid2601743 Roots Aqueous Kenya Swiss Albino Mwangi et al. (2015)
Dicrostachys cinerea (Mimosaceae) NCBI:txid196665 Roots
Tamarindus indica (Caesalpiniaceae) NCBI:txid58860 Stem
Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae) NCBI:txid124943 Roots
Acacia seya l(Mimosaceae) NCBI:txid138044 Roots
Plasmodium berghei Conyza sumatrensis
(Asteraceae)		 NCBI:txid212787 Leaves Methanol Cameroon Swiss albino Boniface et al. (2015)
Plasmodium berghei Carica papaya
(Caricaceae)		 NCBI:txid3649 Leaves Methanol; Ethanol; Ethyl acetate; Ether Switzerland NMRI Julianti et al. (2014)
Plasmodium berghei Telfairia occidentalis
(Cucurbitaceae)		 NCBI:txid370897 Leaves Aqueous Nigeria Swiss albino Adegbolagun et al. (2014)
Plasmodium berghei Fuerstia Africana
(Lamiaceae)		 NCBI:txid204226 Roots Methanol Rwandan SPF Muganga et al. (2014)
Terminalia mollis
(Combretaceae)		 NCBI:txid507438 Methanol; Aqueous
Zanthoxylum chalybeum
(Rutaceae) 		NCBI:txid1671342 Methanol; Aqueous
Plasmodium berghei Telfaria occidentalis
(Cucurbitaceae)		 NCBI:txid370897 Leaves Aqueous Nigeria Swiss albino Adegbolagun et al. (2013)
Plasmodium berghei Azadirachta indica
(Meliaceae)		 NCBI:txid124943 Leaves Aqueous Nigeria Swiss albino Anagu et al. (2014)
Plasmodium
berghei 		Phyllantus amarus
(Phyllanthaceae)		 NCBI:txid293060 Leaves Aqueous Nigeria Swiss albino Kabiru et al. (2013)
Plasmodium yoelii Phlomis nissolii
(Labiatae)		 NCBI:txid997732 ND Chloroform, Ethanol; Aquoeus Turkey BALB/C Ozbilgin et al. (2014)
Phlomis leucophracta
(Labiatae)		 NCBI:txid997725 ND Chloroform; Ethanol; Aquoeus
Phlomis bourgaei
(Labiatae)		 NCBI:txid997703 ND Chloroform; Ethanol; Aquoeus
Centaurea hierapolitana
(Asteraceae) 		NCBI:txid1436092 ND Hexane, Chloroform; Methanol
Centaurea Lydia
(Asteraceae) 		NCBI:txid145506 ND n-hexane, chloroform; Methanol
Centaurea polyclada
(Asteraceae) 		NCBI:txid1530336 ND n-hexane, chloroform; Methanol
Scrophularia floribunda
(Scrophulariace)		 NCBI:txid1357615 ND Chloroform; Ethanol; Aquoesr
Scrophularia depauperata
(Scrophulariace)		 NCBI:txid1970690 ND Chloroform; Ethanol; Aquoeus
Scrophularia cryptophila
(Scrophulariace)		 NCBI:txid1970660 ND Chloroform; Ethanol; Aquoeus
Lavandula stoechas
(Labiatae)		 NCBI:txid39333 ND Ethanol; Aquoeus
Rubia davisiana
(Rubiaceae)		 NCBI:txid25473 ND Methanol; Ethanol; Aquoeus
Alkanna tinctoria
(Boraginaceae)		 NCBI:txid543564 ND Methanol, Ethanol; Aquoeus
Plasmodium berghei Markhamia obtusifolia (Sapotaceae) NCBI:txid1237616 Stem Ethyl acetate (EtOAc) South Africa Swiss albino Simelane et al. (2013)
Hypoxis colchicifolia (Hypoxidaceae) NCBI:txid16123 Bulb
Mimusops caffra (Sapotaceae) NCBI:txid362720 Leaves Dichloromethane
Plasmodium berghei Pluchea lanceolata
(Asteraceae)		 NCBI:txid1950228 Aerial part Methanol India Swiss albino Mohanty et al. (2013)
Plasmodium berghei
 Melissa officinalis
(Labiatae)		 NCBI:txid39338 Aerial part Ethanol Iran Swiss albino Sangian et al. (2013)
Althea officinalis (Malvaceae) NCBI:txid145745 Flowers
Borago officinalis (Boraginaceae) NCBI:txid13363 Flowers
Glycyrrhiza glabra (Papilionaceae) NCBI:txid49827 Roots
Anthemis nobilis (Compositae) NCBI:txid99037 Flowers
Eremostachys laciniata (Lamiaceae) NCBI:txid694356 Roots
Plantago major (Plantaginaceae) NCBI:txid29818 Seeds
Myrtus communis (Myrtaceae) NCBI:txid119949 Aerial part
Stachys lavandulifolia (Labiatae) NCBI:txid193339 Flowers
Arctium lappa (Compositae) NCBI:txid4217 Roots
Plasmodium berghei Bergenia ciliate
(Saxifragaceae)		 NCBI:txid23238 leaves Ethanol India Swiss albino Walter et al. (2013)
Plasmodium berghei Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae) NCBI:txid124943 Root Aqueous Kenya Swiss mice Nguta and Mbaria (2013)
Dichrostachys cinerea (Mimosaceae) NCBI:txid196665 Root
Tamarindus indica(Caesalpiniaceae) NCBI:txid58860 Stem
Acacia seyal (Mimosaceae) NCBI:txid138044 Root
Grewia trichocarpa (Tiliaceae) NCBI:txid2601743 Root
Plasmodium berghei Holarrhena antidysenterica (Apocynaceae) NCBI:txid69380 Stem Aqueous India Swiss albino Priyanka et al. (2013)
Azadirachta indica
(Meliaceae)		 NCBI:txid124943 Leaves; Stem
Plasmodium berghei Nyctanthes arbortristis
(Oleaceae)		 NCBI:txid41398 Leaves Ethanol;
Aqueous		 India Swiss albino Agrawal et al. (2013)
Plasmodium berghei Rumex crispus
(Polygonaceae)		 NCBI:txid174649 Whole plant Ethanol Korea C57BL/6 Lee and Rhee (2013)
Plasmodium berghei Otostegia integrifolia Benth.
(Lamiaceae)		 NCBI:txid483857 Leaves Methanol Ethiopia Swiss albino Endale et al. (2013)
Plasmodium. berghei Adansonia digitata
(Malvaceae)		 NCBI:txid69109 Whole plant Methanol:Chloroform Kenya Swiss albino Musila et al. (2013)
Canthium glaucum
(Rubiaceae)		 NCBI:txid258739
Launaea cornuta
(Rubiaceae)		 NCBI:txid381723
Zanthoxylum chalybeum
(Rutaceae)		 NCBI:txid1671342
Plasmodium chabaudi Artemisia annua
(Asteraceae)		 NCBI:txid35608 Leaves Whole plant USA C57BL/6 Elfawal et al. (2012)
Plasmodium berghei Sorindeia juglandifolia
(Anacardiaceae)		 NCBI:txid1317886 Fruits Methanol Cameroon Swiss albino Kamkumo et al. (2012)
Plasmodium berghei Acanthospermum hispidum
(Asteraceae)		 NCBI:txid182999 Aerial part Hexan Benin NMRI Ganfon et al., (2012)
Plasmodium. berghei Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae) NCBI:txid124943 Leaves Ethanol Ethiopia
 Swiss albino Mesfin et al. (2012)

Plasmodium berghei 		Xanthium strumarium
(Asteraceae)
 NCBI:txid318068 Leaves Ethanol India BALB/c;
Swiss albino		 Chandel et al. (2012)
Plasmodium. berghei Khaya ivorensis (Meliaceae) NCBI:txid486173
 Stem Aqueous Kenya BALB/C Tepongning et al. (2011)
Alstonia boonei (Apocynaceae) NCBI:txid84857
Plasmodium chabaudi Caesalpinia pluviosa
(Fabacaea)		 NCBI:txid191898 Stem Ethanol Brazil C57BL/6 Kayano et al. (2011)
Plasmodium berghei Terminalia bellerica
(Combretaceae)		 NCBI:txid155021 Fruits Aquoeus Thailand ICR Pinmai et al. (2010)
Terminalia chebula
(Combretaceae)		 NCBI:txid155022
Phyllanthus emblica
(Phyllanthaceae)		 NCBI:txid296036
Plasmodium berghei Holarrhena antidysenterica
(Apocynaceae)		 NCBI:txid69380 ND Ether;Chloroform;Methanol; Aquoeus India Swiss albino Verma et al. (2011)
Viola canescens
(Violaceae)		 NCBI:txid509528
Plasmodium berghei Grewia plagiophylla
(Tiliaceae)		 NCBI:txid82407 Stem; Leaves Methanol Kenya BALB/c Gathirwa et al. (2011)
Combretum padoides
(Combretaceae)		 NCBI:txid507418 Roots; Leaves
Hoslundia opposita
(Labietaceae)		 NCBI:txid204228 Roots; Leaves
Rhus natalensis
(Anacardiaceae)		 NCBI:txid4012 Root; Leaves
Combretum illairii
(Combretaceae)		 NCBI:txid99434 Roots; Leaves
Lannea schweinfurthii
(Anacardiaceae)		 NCBI:txid289717 Leaves; Stem
Premna chrysoclada
(Verbenaceae)		 NCBI:txid41393 Roots, Leaves
Allophylus pervillei
(Sapindaceae)		 NCBI:txid1972007 Roots Stem bark, Leaves
Abrus precatorius
(Leguminosae)		 NCBI:txid3816 Leaves
Aganthesanthemum bojeri
(Rubiaceae)		 NCBI:txid58372 Whole plant
Uvaria acuminata
(Annonaceae)		 NCBI:txid672960 Roots, Leaves
Azadirachta indica
(Meliaceae)		 NCBI:txid124943 Leaves
Flueggea virosa
(Euphorbiaceae)		 NCBI:txid283121 Roots
Plasmodium berghei Boerhavia elegans
(Nyctaginaceae)		 NCBI:txid122399 ND Ethanol Iran BALB/C Ramazani et al. (2010)
Solanum surattense
(Solanaceae)		 NCBI:txid4107 ND
Prosopis juliflora
(Fabaceae)		 NCBI:txid13230 ND
Plasmodium berghei Zanthoxylum usambarense
(Rutaceae)		 NCBI:txid2562172 Stem Aquoeus Kanya BALB/C Were et al. (2010)
Warburgia ugandensis
(Canellaceae)		 NCBI:txid549619
Plasmodium berghei Anisopappus chinensis
(Asteraceae)		 NCBI:txid2052862 Whole plant Aqueous; Methanol; Dichloromethane Congo NMRI Lusakibanza et al. (2010)
Entandrophragma palustre
(Meliaceae)		 NCBI:txid155635 Stem
Melia azedarach
(Meliaceae)		 NCBI:txid155640 Leaves

Plasmodium berghei
 Aphloia theiformis
(Aphloiaceae)		 NCBI:txid112806 Leaves Methanol France Swiss albino Jonville et al. (2008)
Buddleja salvi folia (Loganiaceae) NCBI:txid168503 Leaves; Flowers
Eupatorium triplinerve
(Asteraceae)		 NCBI:txid1090619 Aerial part
Geniostoma borbonicum
(Loganiaceae)		 NCBI:txid1054601 Leaves
Justicia gendarussa
(Acanthaceae)		 NCBI:txid714472 Aerial part
Lantana camara
(Verbenaceae)		 NCBI:txid126435 Leaves;Flowers
Nuxia verticillata
(Loganiaceae)		 NCBI:txid69069 Leaves
Psiadia arguta
(Asteraceae)		 NCBI:txid1225821 Leaves
Terminalia bentzoe
(Combretaceae)		 NCBI:txid1908415 Leaves
Plasmodium berghei
 Carpesium ceruum
(Asteraceae)		 NCBI:txid119171 Whole plant Ethanol South Korea ICR Kim et al. (2009)
Plasmodium berghei

 Ampelozyziphus amazonicus (Rhamnaceae) NCBI:txid106660 Roots Ethanolic Brazil CD1 Andrade-Neto et al. (2008)
Plasmodium berghei Phyllanthus amarus (Euphorbiaceae) NCBI:txid293060 Leaves; Stem Aqueous Nigeria Swiss albino Dapper et al. (2007)
Plasmodium. berghei Turraea robusta (Meliaceae) NCBI:txid1899148
 Stems, Roots Aqueous Kenya Swiss albino Gathirwa et al. (2008)
Lannea schweinfurthii (Meliaceae) NCBI:txid289717
Sclerocarya birrea (Anacardiaceae) NCBI:txid289766

Plasmodium vinckei

 Chrozophora senegalensis
(Euphorbiaceae)		 NCBI:txid316752
 Leaves, stems Ether; Acetone; Ethanol Senegal Swiss albino Benoit-Vical et al. (2008)
Plasmodium berghei Phyllanthus niruri
(Phyllanthaceae)		 NCBI:txid296034 Whole plant Aqueous, Methanol; Chloroform Indonesia Swiss albino Mustofa (2007)
Plasmodium. berghei Flueggea virosa (Euphorbiaceae)
 NCBI:txid283121
 Leaves, Stems, Roots Aqueous Kenya Swiss albino Muthaura et al. (2007a)
Warburgia stuhlmannii (Canellaceae)
 NCBI:txid549618
Harungana madagascariensis (Guttiferae) NCBI:txid198768
Maytenus putterlickioides (Celastraceae) NCBI:txid123430
Maytenus undata (Celasteraceae) NCBI:txid123432
Plasmodium yoelii Eurycoma longifolia
(Simaroubaceae)		 NCBI:txid458531 Root Methanol Malaysia ND
 Mohd Ridzuan et al. (2007)
Plasmodium berghei Schkuhria pinnata
(Asteraceae)		 NCBI:txid176579 Whole plant Aqueous; Methanol Kenya Swiss albino Muthaura et al. (2007b)
Fuerstia africana
(Lamiaceae)		 NCBI:txid204226
Ludwigia erecta
(Onagraceae)		 NCBI:txid1620136
Plasmodium berghei Toddalia asiatica (Rutaceae) NCBI:txid159068 Root Aqueous Kenya ICR Muregi et al. (2007a)
Rhamnus prinoides (Rhamnaceae) NCBI:txid280022 Leaves; Roots
Vernonia lasiopus (Asteraceae) NCBI:txid83961 Rooots
Plasmodium berghei Caesalpinia volkensii s
(Caesalpinaceae)		 NCBI:txid1387603 Leaves; Seeds Methanol Kenyan ICR Muregi et al. (2007b)
Maytenus acuminata
(Celastraceae)		 NCBI:txid1237617 Leaves; Roots
Maytenus heterophylla
(Celastraceae)
 NCBI:txid123430 Roots
Maytenus senegalensis
(Celastraceae)		 NCBI:txid256095 Leaves; Roots
Vernonia lasiopus
(Compositae)		 NCBI:txid83961 Leaves; Roots; Stem
Ajuga remota Benth.
(Labiatae)		 NCBI:txid38595 Whole plant
Ekebergia capensis.
(Meliaceae)		 NCBI:txid124949 Leaves; Roots; Stem
Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae) NCBI:txid124943 Leaves
Albizia gummifera
(Mimosaceae)		 NCBI:txid1561840 Leaves; Stem
Ficus sur
(Moraceae)		 NCBI:txid100575 Leaves; Roots; Stem
Rhamnus prinoides
(Rhamnaceae)		 NCBI:txid280022 Leaves; Roots
Rhamnus staddo
(Rhamnaceae)		 NCBI:txid280026 Leaves; Roots
Toddalia asiatica
(Rutaceae)		 NCBI:txid159068 Leaves; Roots
Withania somnifera
(Solanaceae)		 NCBI:txid126910 Roots
Clerodendrum myricoides
(Verbenaceae)		 NCBI:txid54240 Leaves; Roots
Plasmodium yoelii Pseudoxandra cuspidate
(Annonaceae)		 NCBI:txid235824 Leaves; Stem Aqueous France Swiss albino Bertani et al. (2005)
Zanthoxylum rhoifolium
(Rutaceae)		 NCBI:txid549434
Tinospora crispa
(Menispermaceae)		 NCBI:txid285591
Quassia amara
(Simaroubaceae)		 NCBI:txid43725
Picrolemma pseudocoffea
(Simaroubaceae)		 NCBI:txid459142
Irlbachia alata
(Gentiananceae)		 NCBI:txid82716
Plasmodium berghei Striga hermonthica
(Orobanchaceae)		 NCBI:txid68872 Whole plant Methanolic Nigeria ND
Tapinanthus sessilifolius
(Loranthaceae)		 NCBI:txid50164 Leaves
Plasmodium berghei Bidens pilosa
(Asteraceae)		 NCBI:txid42337 Roots Ethanol Brazil Swiss albino adult
mice
Swiss albino adult
mice
Swiss albino adult
mice
Swiss albino		 Andrade-Neto et al. (2004)
Plasmodium vinckei Iris germanica
(Iridaceae)		 NCBI:txid34205 Rhizome Ethanol France Swiss albino Benoit-Vical et al. (2003)

Plasmodium berghei
 Struchium sparganophorum (Asteraceae) NCBI:txid2067364 Leaves Ethanol Guinea BALB/C do Céu de Madureira et al. (2002)
Vernonia amygdalina (Asteraceae) NCBI:txid82755 Leaves
Ageratum conyzoides
(Asteraceae)		 NCBI:txid68299 Aerial part
Cinchona succirubra
(Rubiaceae) 		NCBI:txid43462 Stem
Aloe humilis
(Liliaceae) 		NCBI:txid247124 Leaves
Tithonia diversifolia (Asteraceae) NCBI:txid684020 Aerial part
Cedrela odorata
(Meliaceae)		 NCBI:txid124947 Stem
Premna angolensis
(Verbenaceae)
 NCBI:txid289394 Stem
Pycnanthus angolensis
(Myristicaceae)		 NCBI:txid224864 Stem
Morinda lucida
(Rubiaceae)		 NCBI:txid339305 Stem
Morinda lucida 
(Rubiaceae)		 NCBI:txid339305 Leaves
Cestrum laevigatum
(Solanaceae)		 NCBI:txid1237510 Leaves
Canna bidentata
(Canaceae)		 NCBI:txid4627 Roots
Plasmodium yoelii Hydrangea macrophylla
(Hydrangeaceae)		 NCBI:txid23110 Leaves Aqeuous Japan ICR Ishih et al. (2001)
Plasmodium berghei Phyllanthus niruri
(Phyllanthaceae)		 NCBI:txid296034 Whole plants Ethanol; Dichloromethane; Aqueous Congo Swiss albino Tona et al. (2001)
Morinda morindoides
(Rubiaceae)		 NCBI:txid659048 Leaves
Cassia occidentalis
(Fabaceae)		 NCBI:txid126820 Roots
Plasmodium berghei Hydrangea macrophylla
(Hydrangeaceae)		 NCBI:txid23110 Leaves Aqueous Japan ddY Kamei et al. (2000)
Plasmodium berghei Erythrina senegalensis
(Fabaceae)		 NCBI:txid157649 Stem Aqueous Nigeria Swiss albino Saidu et al. (2000)
Plasmodium berghei Pothomorphe peltata
(Piperaceae)		 wfo-4000031037 Leaves Hexane; Methanol Brazil Swiss albino de Ferreira-da-Cruz et al. (2000)
Pothomorphe umbellate
(Piperaceae)		 wfo-4000031037 Leaves
Plasmodium chabaudi Ziziphus spina-christi
(Rhamnaceae)		 NCBI:txid72171 Leaves Methanol Saudi Arabia Swiss albino Hafiz et al. (2019)
Plasmodium. berghei Ziziphus spina-christi
(Rhamnaceae)		 NCBI:txid72171 Leaves Methanol Saudi Arabia C57BL/6 Mubaraki et al. (2017)
Plasmodium chabaudi Punica granatum
(Lythraceae)		 NCBI:txid22663 Peels Methano Saudi Arabia Swiss albino Hafiz et al. (2016)
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*Identifcation number of the source species, derived from the NCBI Taxonomy database. ND: not determined.

Table 2.

Biosynthesized nanoparticles from plant source used for the experimental murine malaria research

Parasite name Plant (Family) Plant Taxon ID* Studied plant part Country of harvest Mouse strain Nanoparticle References
Plasmodium chabaudi Indigofera oblongifolia
(Fabaceae)		 NCBI:txid198899 Leaves Saudi Arabia C57Bl/6 Silver Al-Quraishy et al., 2020, Murshed et al., 2020, Dkhil et al., 2020
Plasmodium berghei Vernonia cinerea
(Asteraceae)
 NCBI:txid13753 ND India Swiss albino Gold Jyotshna et al. (2016).
Plasmodium berghei
 Azadirachta indica
(Meliaceae)
 NCBI:txid124943 Seed India Swiss albino Silver Murugan et al. (2016)
Open in a new tab

*Identification number of the source species, derived from the NCBI Taxonomy database. ND: not determined.

Data were entered into Excel datasheet and the frequency distribution of medicinal plants, used Plasmodium species, plant part used, plant Taxon ID, family of the plants, used plant extract and the country were described. The obtained data were presented in tables and Figures.

3. Results and discussion

In this systematic review, medicinal plants from January 2000 to November 2020 have been used for the treatment of murine malaria have been showed. Accordingly, 323 plant species in 170 research articles were identified for treatment of malaria. Only 128 articles were included in this study. The reviewed plants belonged to 83 families. Medicinal plants of the families Asteraceae, Meliaceae Fabaceae and Lamiaceae are the most abundant for use in laboratory animal antimalarial studies with 31, 17, 15 and 12 research papers, respectively (Table 1).

More medicinal plants species with antimalarial activity were from families Asteraceae and Meliaceae due to high prevalence of these families in the studied countries especially in Africa.

Leaves were the most common plant part used for the experimental malaria research due to the availability of several active compounds (Asafo-Agyei et al., 2019).

According to region, published articles from 33 different countries were reviewed. Most of malaria published articles are from Africa especially Nigeria and Ethiopia (Table 1) where the prevalence of the parasite is high in Africa (WHO, 2019) and most of research is directed to solve the problem.

Only 3 review article were found with our search. Memvanga et al. (2015) reported that approximately 120 extracts obtained from Congolese plant species demonstrated strong or fair antiplasmodial activity. A variety of compounds have also been isolated and reported with promising antiplasmodial effects. Many of these compounds were new scaffolds for promising antimalarial drugs to be synthesized. In comparison to mammalian cells, most of these extracts and compounds have high selective activity against Plasmodium parasites. In mice, the efficacy and safety of several plant-based products has been verified and a strong association between in vitro and in vivo antimalarial activity has been observed.

Amoa Onguéné et al. (2013) surveyed the activity of 278 compounds from African flora until the year 2013. In this review, authors reported compounds mainly contained alkaloids and flavonoids with anti-malarial properties. In the review by Adebayo and Krettli (2011), they focused on medicinal plants which are used to treat malaria in Nigeria from 1984 to 2008.

Biosynthetic approaches for nanoparticles would be much more efficient if nanoparticles were created extracellularly utilizing plants or their extracts in a controlled way (Du et al., 2020). Recently, due to its simplicity and eco-friendliness, plant-mediated biological synthesis of nanoparticles is gaining importance (Du et al., 2020). In general, set of experiments were carried out to evaluate if this analysis would be used to assess the activity of plant crude extracts (Phillipson and O’Neill, 1987).

Murugan et al. (2016) synthesized silver nanoparticles (AgNP) using the Azadirachta indica seed kernel extract as reducing and stabilizing agent. They reported a moderate activity of the nanoparticles against P. berghei in mice (Table 2). Moreover, our group published three articles on the effect of AgNPs synthesized from Indigofera oblongifolia leaf extracts on P. chabaudi induced infection in C57Bl/6 mice. The suppression of parasitemia reached more than 90% (Murshed et al., 2020). Also, the antioxidant and hepatic and spleen protective role of I. oblongifolia extract was investigated in addition to the iron regulatory role of this medicinal plant.

4. Conclusion

In developing countries, malaria is very widespread, particularly in African countries, causing health problems. In many countries, studies using medicinal plants to suppress parasites and as a defensive tool is common and it is advisable to make people aware of the significance of medicinal plants. Moreover, the biochemical function, protection and efficacy of medicinal plants should be further investigated.

Acknowledgments

The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship for Research & Innovation, “Ministry of Education” in Saudi Arabia for funding this research work through the project number IFKSURP-80”

Footnotes

Peer review under responsibility of King Saud University.

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Further reading

  1. https://www.who.int/publications-detail/world-malaria-report-2019.
  2. Kalani K., Agarwal J., Alam S., Khan F., Pal A., Srivastava S.K. In silico and in vivo anti-malarial studies of 18β glycyrrhetinic acid from Glycyrrhiza glabra. PLoS ONE. 2013;8(9) doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0074761. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
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