Gathered Wild Food Plants among Diverse Religious Groups in Jhelum District, Punjab, Pakistan

Abstract

Recent ethnobotanical studies have raised the hypothesis that religious affiliation can, in certain circumstances, influence the evolution of the use of wild food plants, given that it shapes kinship relations and vertical transmission of traditional/local environmental knowledge. The local population living in Jhelum District, Punjab, Pakistan comprises very diverse religious and linguistic groups. A field study about the uses of wild food plants was conducted in the district. This field survey included 120 semi-structured interviews in 27 villages, focusing on six religious groups (Sunni and Shia Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, and Ahmadis). We documented a total of 77 wild food plants and one mushroom species which were used by the local population mainly as cooked vegetables and raw snacks. The cross-religious comparison among six groups showed a high homogeneity of use among two Muslim groups (Shias and Sunnis), while the other four religious groups showed less extensive, yet diverse uses, staying within the variety of taxa used by Islamic groups. No specific plant cultural markers (i.e., plants gathered only by one community) could be identified, although there were a limited number of group-specific uses of the shared plants. Moreover, the field study showed erosion of the knowledge among the non-Muslim groups, which were more engaged in urban occupations and possibly underwent stronger cultural adaption to a modern lifestyle. The recorded traditional knowledge could be used to guide future development programs aimed at fostering food security and the valorization of the local bio-cultural heritage.

1. Introduction

Wild food plants have remained an important ingredient of traditional food basket systems especially in remote communities around the globe [1]. However, due to dramatic socio-cultural shifts local communities are facing and global climate change, dependence on wild food plants has drastically decreased in many areas. Food industrialization and globalization have severely impacted traditional food systems, especially in rural communities [2]. Consequently, traditional/local environmental knowledge (TEK) linked to wild food plants is becoming more and more endangered, and in some places of the world, it has already disappeared [3]. In recent decades, scientists have recorded several complex TEK systems associated to wild food plants, especially in marginalized areas. However, very few ethnobotanical field studies have focused on the cross-cultural and cross-regional comparison of TEK associated to wild food plants, despite the fact that cultural diversity shapes TEK [4,5,6,7,8,9].

In many regions of the world, inhabitants of rural areas depend on wild plants as food [10] and a large number of wild plant species occurring in a great variety of habitats are consumed [11,12]. Recent works have addressed the role that religious affiliation may play in shaping folk wild food plant uses and cuisines, since this factor shapes in many areas of the world kinship relations and the vertical transmission of plant and gastronomic knowledge [13,14,15]. However, all over the world wild plants have been more frequently consumed in the past [10]. There are over 20,000 species of wild edible plants in the world, yet fewer than 20 cultivated species now provide 90% of our main staples [16].

The collection and culinary use of wild plants for food are part of the bio-cultural heritage of local communities and therefore can foster their future sustainability [17,18]. During the last decades, a large number of publications have documented the ethnobotany of wild food plants, but only sporadically scholars have tried to articulate the evaluation of socio-cultural and economic factors possibly influencing foraging [19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32]; simultaneously, research on specific domains of the plant foodscape, such as that of fermentation of local plants (sometimes wild) is exponentially growing [33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45].

Pakistan comprises remarkable natural resources, and a large variety of religious faiths and linguistic communities using a wide range of wild food plants [46]. Many rural communities in Pakistan live closely attached to their natural resources [47] and wild food plants are often consumed for food [48]. A few comparative studies have very recently addressed the cross-cultural dimension of wild food plants gathering and use in Pakistan, and highlighted the role of diverse linguistic and religious groups [49,50,51].

In order to further evaluate this trajectory, the current study focused on six religious groups (Sunni and Shia Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, and Ahmadis—also named Qadiani in official Pakistani documents, despite this term is considered sometime derogatory by the community), speaking eleven different languages (Urdu, Punjabi, Phtohari, Gojri, Pahari, Hindko, Saraiki, Sindhi, Pashto, Kashmiri, and Hindi) in Jhelum District, Punjab, NE Pakistan.

The main aim of our research was to record local knowledge related to wild food plants and also to provide baseline documentation to help local stakeholders revitalizing their food traditions. We particularly explored the impact of religious and linguistic affiliation on the gathering, utilization and consumption of wild food plants in 27 villages in Jhelum district, Punjab, Pakistan, hypothesizing that there could be some differences between different faiths.

The specific research objectives of this study were:

• to explore and record the diversity of wild food plants gathered in Jhelum,

• to evaluate the local food and possible traditional perceptions,

• to compare the mentioned wild food plants among the six selected religious faith groups in order to possibly understand cross-cultural similarities and differences and to better understand the cultural context supporting the use of wild food plants found in Jhelum district.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

The study area of Jhelum district is located North of the river Jhelum and is bordered by Rawalpindi district in the North, Sargodha and Gujrat districts in the South, Azad Jammu and Kashmir in the East, and Chakwal district in the West [52,53]. The population of the district is 1.22 million, and 71% of the population lives in rural areas, while the remaining 29% are urban [54]. The climatic conditions are semi-arid, warm-subtropical, characterized by warm summers and severe winters. Jhelum is a semi-mountainous area (Figure 1), with a mean annual rainfall of 880 mm. The annual average temperature reaches 23.6 °C. Jhelum is home to the world’s second largest salt mine (Khewra) covering about 1000 ha [53,55]. The people of Jhelum have a diverse culture with distinct modes of life, traditions, and beliefs [56]. The ethnic groups of the area show a strong connection to wild plants which often have cultural and medicinal significance [57].

Figure 1.

Diverse landscapes of Jhelum study area, NE Pakistan; (a–d): landscape depicting leading plant species associations (indicator species: Acacia modesta, Acacia nilotica, Prosopis juliflora, Ziziphus numularia, Justicia adhatoda and Dodonea viscosa); (e–g): exposed sedimentary bedrock stratification (age: Pre-Cambrian to Pliocene; composition: limestone, sandstone, shale, and dolomite) and sandy loam textured soil; (h): rangeland for livestock grazing.

The study was conducted in 27 remote villages (Figure 2), all of which contained rivers, mountains, forests, salt mines, and valleys. Some typical and important attributes including landscapes, vegetation, geology and soil, and rangeland are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 2.

The map of the study area displaying the studied sites/village locations.

2.2. Field Study

The ethnobotanical field research was conducted from March to November 2020. Study participants were selected through snowball sampling focusing on middle-aged and elderly inhabitants (range: 40–90 years old), especially farmers, herders, and housewives. Selected interviewees belonged to different religious faiths and different language groups. Twenty participants (men and women) from each religious group were selected and participated in the survey. The characteristics of the study participants from the 27 visited villages and their different socio-cultural and economic attributes are reported in Table 1.

Table 1.

Characteristics of the study participants.

Religious Group	Sunnis	Shias	Hindus	Sikhs	Christians	Ahmadis
Brief historical sketch	Islam arrived in the 8th century, the majority converted to Sunni Islam during in the 11th–16th centuries; minor fractions migrated from Middle Eastern and African countries	The majority converted to Shia Islam during the 16th–18th centuries; minor fractions migrated from the Middle East	Autochthonous	Converted around the 15th century	Emerged with British colonialism in the 18th and 19th centuries	Converted in the 19th century
Approx. number of inhabitants in Jhelum District, Pakistan (2020)	1.01 million	0.21 million	2000	5000	7000	6000
Study villages	Dhoke Padhal, Dharyala, Chakoha, Mohal, Natain, Zinda Shah Madar, Surghdan,	Chak Jamal, Kundal, Pindori, Nathot	Chak Akka, Nathwala, Nakodar, Pari Darweza	Dhaniala, Nougran, Adranah	Nagial, Kot Umar, Dharyala Jalap	Naka Kalan, Rajipur, Kharala, Wara Phophra, Langer Pur
Spoken languages	Pothwari, Kashmiri, Pashto	Saraiki, Pahari, Pothwari	Hindku, Hindi, Sindhi	Punjabi, Gojri	English, Urdu	Urdu
Inter-marriages	Rarely exogamic with Shia	Rarely exogamic with Sunni	Endogamic	Strictly endogamic	Endogamic	Strictly endogamic
Main occupations	Forestry and farming	Forestry and farming	Farming and urban occupations	Pastoralism and urban occupations	Horticulturalism and urban occupations	Horticulturalism
Estimated average socio-economic status of the study participants	Middle	Middle	Low	Low	Low	Middle low
Number of study participants	20	20	20	20	20	20
Percent of female participants	30%	25%	25%	45%	45%	30%
Overall mean age of the study participants	47	53	64	66	59	69

Prior to starting an interview, oral informed consent was obtained, and the Code of Ethics of the International Society of Ethnobiology [58] was followed. Semi-structured interviews were conducted in the national language, Urdu, and some local languages (Punjabi, Saraiki, Pothohari, Gojri, Hinko, Pahari, Kashmiri, Sindhi, and Hindi) with the help of translators. The information collected focused on the gathering and consumption patterns of wild plants as cooked vegetables, raw snacks, salads, herbal drinks, recreational herbal teas, jams, and for fermentation following Kujawska and Łuczaj [59]. Particular questions were focused on the use of wild plants in daily food habits or in food fermentation, and the consumption of edible wild food plants [49]. Local names of collected taxa were recorded in eleven different local languages.

During the interviews qualitative ethnographic data was documented following Termote et al. [60]. The recorded wild food plants were collected from the study area and were identified using the Flora of Pakistan [61,62,63]. After correct identification, each taxon was given a voucher specimen number and deposited in the Herbarium of the Department of Botany, University of Gujrat, Punjab, Pakistan. For nomenclature, the Plant List database [64] was followed for plants, and the Index Fungorum [65] for the single recorded mushroom taxon. The plant family nomenclature follows the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group [66].

2.3. Data Analysis

The documented data was stored in two main binary data spreadsheets (1. Species gathered for any use; 2. Species gathered for specific use) across the six local religious communities and compared through Venn diagrams and pairwise Jaccard’s dissimilarity using the R Statistical Package [67,68,69].

The Jaccard Index (JI) was calculated as:

J(X, Y) = |X∩Y|/|X∪Y|

X = Individual set of plant usages documented by group X

Y = Individual set of plant usages documented by group Y

By using JI, Jaccard’s distance (JD) was calculated as:

D(X,Y) = 1 − J(X,Y)

Moreover, a qualitative comparison with other studies on wild food plants carried out in Pakistan [49,50,51,52,70,71,72] was conducted.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Reported Wild Food Plants and Their Uses

A total of seventy-eight taxa (77 vascular plants and one mushroom) were gathered and consumed in different ways in the study area (Table 2). The most commonly used wild food plant species were native, with the exception of Agave americana, Amaranthus spinosus, Sonchus oleraceus, Tephrosia purpurea, Trigonella corniculata, Salvia moorcroftiana, Salvia nubicola, Solanum incanum, Chenopodium album, and Portulaca quadrifida, which were grown as herbs or grew wild as weeds in anthropogenically disturbed locations. A total of nine different typologies of food preparations were identified: chutneys (a family of spicy condiments and sauces prototypical of South Asian cuisines); cooked vegetables; fermented preparations; herbal drinks (plant material infused in cold water); herbal teas (plant material infused in hot water); jams; raw snacks (consumed singly, mostly in the field at the collection site); salads (raw plants consumed at the dining table as a starter and/or in conjunction with other food items); and seasoning/spices.

Table 2.

Recorded wild food plants and their local uses.

Plant Species, Family, and Voucher Specimen Number	Local Names	Parts Used	Gathering Area and Season	Local Culinary Uses and Quotation Frequency	Frequency of Consumption
Acacia modesta Wall.; Leguminosae; 827/MM//2020	PholaiUR, PN, PT, HN PaliPH, GJ Jangli KikerSR PalosaPS Angrezi BaburSN Kiker KulKM	Gum, Leaves	DL, FO, HS, RS, SP, WP; March–April	FermentationHN**, SI* JamSH*, SN	Very commonSH CommonHN RareSN Very rareSI
Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile; Leguminosae; 783/MM//2020	KikarUR, PN, PT, HN, HI KikrSR, PH, GJ, KM KikharPS Sindhi BaburSN	Gum, Pods	DL, FO, HS, RS, SP, WP; March–April	FermentationSH**, QA* JamSI**, SN	Very commonSH CommonQA RareSN Very rareSI
Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Juss. ex Schult.; Amaranthaceae; 544/MM//2020	BoenUR ThooPN BoiPT, PH, GJ, KM Niki BoienSR ShorakaiPS SparokaiPS BoohSN Safed BuiHI	Flowers, Leaves, Seeds	DL, FO, GR, HS, SP, SL, WP; February–April	CookingCR**, QA*, SH, SN**	Very commonSH CommonSN RareCR Very rareQA
Agave americana L.; Asparagaceae; 675/MM//2020	Jangli Kwar GandalUR LaphraPN, PH, GJ Kanwar PharaSR Desi Kwar GandalPT Kamal GandKM KeuroSN ZargiraPS Kamal CactusHN Bin KatoraHI	Leaves	AL, DL, FO, GL, GR, RS, SP, WP; August–September	CookingSN, SH, HN*, QA **	Very commonSH CommonSN RareQA Very rareHN
Allium carolinianum DC.; Amaryllidaceae; 409/MM//2020	Jangli PyazUR, KM, HN Jangli GandaPN, PT, GJ Jangli WasalSR KhokhaiPS	Bulbs	DL, FO, GL, SP, SH; August–September	CookingCR*, SN* SaladQA*, SH*	Very commonSN CommonCR RareSH Very rareQA
Amaranthus spinosus L.; Amaranthaceae; 787/MM//2020	CholaiUR KonjelPN Surkh GunahrPH, PT BattoSR GhinyarGJ, KM ChalveryHN SarmayPS KalgaSN GuleeKM GanharHN Kanta ChaulaiHI	Leaves	AL, GL, HS, RS, SL, SH, WP; August–September	CookingCR*, SH***, SI**, SN	Very commonSN CommonSI RareCR Very rareSH
Amaranthus viridis L.; Amaranthaceae; 878/MM//2020	Jangli ChoolaiUR TandlaPT, GJ, PH TandulaSR TanduliPN LuturSN SaagPS RanzakaPS GanyarHN GanarKM	Leaves	AL, GL, HS, RS, SL, SH, WP; August–September	CookingQA*, SH, SI**, SN	Very commonSN CommonSI RareSH Very rareQA
Boerhavia repens L.; Nyctaginaceae; 816/MM//2020	Looni BootiUR LornkiPN, PT LorankSR BakhroSN	Leaves	AL, FO, GL, GR, HS, RS, SH, WP; August–September	CookingSN**, SH, SI**, CR**	Very commonSN CommonSH RareCR Very rareSI
Cannabis sativa L.; Cannabaceae; 669/MM//2020	BhangUR, SN, SR, GJ, PH, KM PangPN, PT, HN KammPS	Leaves, Seeds	AL, GL, GR, RS, SH, WP, WL; March–April	Herbal drinkSN, SH*, SI**, QA	Very commonSN CommonSH RareQA Very rareSI
Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Edgew.; Capparaceae; 532/MM//2020	KarirUR PichuUR KarinhaPN, GJ KariSR KareenhPT, PH, KM KareerHN DelaGJ, KM KreetaPT KareenhSR KiraPS JabaPS KirarSN KairHI	Fruits	DL, FO, GR, HS, SP; August-September	FermentationSN** JamSH* Raw snacksSI**, CR*	Very commonSH CommonSN RareCR Very rare SI
Caragana ambigua Stocks.; Leguminosae; 409/MM//2020	Jangli PhaliUR, PN, PT, GJ BaiphliSR ZarayPS	Flowers, Pods	RS, SL, SH, WP; June–July	CookingCR* Raw snacksSN*, SI SaladHN**	Very commonSN CommonSI RareCR Very rareHN
Chenopodium album L.; Amaranthaceae; 748/MM//2020	Jangli BathooUR Desi BathooPN, PT, PH, GJ Desi BattoonSR SurmaPS SormiPS Spin SobaPS ButhiaPS UdharamHN ChilSN BathwaKM GoyaloHI	Branches, Leaves	AL, FO, GL, GR, HS, RS, SL, SH, WP; March–April, August–September	CookingSN**, SI***, CR*, SH**	Very commonSN CommonSI RareCR Very rareSH
Chenopodium murale L.; Amaranthaceae; 805/MM//2020	KarndUR, PH, GJ, KM Karwa BathooPN BathooPT Kora BatoonSR Thor SurmaPS LulurSN KurundHN GoyaloHI	Branches, Leaves	FO, GL, GR, HS, RS, SL; March–April	CookingSN, SH**, CR*, QA	Very commonSI CommonSN RareSH Very rareQA
Chenopodium vulvaria L.; Amaranthaceae; 611/MM//2020	Sufaid BathooUR, KM Jangli BatoonPN, PT, PH Chitta BatoonSR LulurSN KurundHN GoyaloHI	Branches, Leaves	AL, DL, RS; March–April, August–September	CookingSN*, SH, SI*, QA*	Very commonSI CommonSN RareSH Very rareQA
Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.; Asteracae; 761/MM//2020	LeehUR LehiPN, PT LehPH LiahGJ WanvahriSR Da Khwarak AzghaiPS KandiaraSN KundKM	Stems	DL, FO, GL, GR, HS, SP, SH, WP; March–April	Raw snacksSN*, SH***, HN*, QA*	Very commonSH CommonQA RareHN Very rareSN
Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad.; Cucurbitaceae; 638/MM//2020	TummaUR Kaud TumbhaPN, GJ, PH Kor TummaPT, SR, KM PirpandyanPS MarghonePS Tarha MarhaPS AndrainPS HanzalPS TroohSN IndrayanHI	Fruits	AL, DL, FO, GL, GR, HS, RS, SP, SL, SH, WP; May–June	FermentationCR*** JamSI** SpiceSN*, SH***	Very commonSI CommonSN RareCR Very rareSH
Commelina benghalensis L.; Commelinaceae; 795/MM//2020	KaniPN, SR JawarzaalPS ChuraKM	Leaves	FO, GL, HS, RS, SL, SH, WP, WL; March–April	CookingSN, SH*, SI***, QA**	Very commonSH CommonSN RareSI Very rareQA
Convolvulus arvensis L.; Convolvulaceae; 728/MM//2020	LehiUR LehliPN, GJ Hiran KahriPT, PH VanvaihreSR ParvatyPS NaaroSN Speaker BootiHN HirapadiKM	Leaves	AL, FO, GL, GR, RS, SH, WL; March–April	CookingSH, SI**, CR**, QA	Very commonSH CommonQA RareCR Very rareSI
Corchorus depressus (L.) Stocks; Malvaceae; 591/MM//2020	Bahu PhaliUR BaephliSR MunderiSN	Whole plant	DL, GR, HS, MS, SP, SL; March–April	Herbal drinkSN, SI***, CR**, QA*	Very commonSI CommonQA RareSN Very rareCR
Corchorus tridens L.; Malvaceae; 417/MM//2020	PhaliUR, PN, PT, GJ, KM DadiSR	Pods	GL, GR, HS, MS; March–May	Herbal drinkSN, SH*, SI*, QA*	Very commonSH CommonQA RareSN Very rareSI
Cucumis melo L.; Cucurbitaceae; 527/MM//2020	ChibarUR, PN ChibbarhSR ChibharPH, PT, GJ, KM MiteroSN	Fruits	AL, GL; June–July	ChutneySN*** FermentationQA** JamSI* Raw snacksHN*** SaladSN***	Very commonSI CommonHN RareQA Very rareSN
Digera muricata (L.) Mart.; Amaranthaceae; 694/MM//2020	TandlaUR TandoliPT, GJ, PH LeswaKM TandalaPN Mareeri SaagSR AthiHN TartaraPS Nazam HooraPS LulurSN ChanchaliHI LahsuvaHI	Branches, Leaves	FO, GL, GR, HS, RS, SH, WP, WL; August–September	CookingSI*, CR**, SN*, QA	Very commonSI CommonSN RareCR Very rareQA
Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants; Amaranthaceae; 856/MM//2020	Desi BathooUR BathooPN, PT Jangli BattoonSR Babre NagdiPS BathuGJ, PH BathwaHN, KM	Branches, Leaves	AL, DL, FO, GL, GR, HS, RS, SL, SH, WP; August–September	CookingSH**, CR**, SN*, QA**	Very commonSH CommonSN RareCR Very rareQA
Fagonia indica Burm. f.; Zygophyllaceae; 842/MM//2020	JamahonUR, PN, PT DamanhPN, KM, GJ Jawanh BootiSR DramahoSN	Whole plant	DL, FO, GR, HS, RS, SP, SL; July–August	Herbal drinkSN*, SH, SI**, QA	Very commonSH CommonSI RareQA Very rareSN
Galium aparine L.; Rubiaceae; 589/MM//2020	WanwairPN, PT, GJ Wanwair BootiSR, PH CochnaPS LahndraKM	Leaves	AL, FO, GL, GR, HS, RS, SL, SH, WP; June–July	Herbal DrinkSN**, SI, CR, QA	Very commonSI CommonQA RareSN Very rareCR
Gisekia pharnaceoides L.; Gisekiaceae; 644/MM//2020	Balu Ka SagUR Jangli SagPN, PT, SR	Leaves	AL, FO, GL, GR, RS, SP, SH, WP; July–August	CookingSN*, SH**, SI**, CR**	Very commonCR CommonSH RareSN Very rareSI
Indigofera hochstetteri Baker.; Leguminosae; 499/MM//2020	KanoUR RaariPN, PT, GJ, PH MareeriSR ZindKM JhillSN	Flowers, Seeds	GL, GR, HS, MS; August–October	JamSH, SI*, CR*, QA	Very commonSI CommonQA RareSH Very rareCR
Lathyrus aphaca L.; Leguminosae; 844/MM//2020	Jangli MatterUR, PN, PT Jangli MattriSR Marghayo HpayPS KukarmanyPS Jangli PhaliKM	Pods	AL, FO, GL, RS, SH, WP, WL; September–October	FermentationHN**, SI*** Raw snacksQA**, SH***	Very commonSH CommonQA RareHN Very rareSI
Lathyrus sativus L.; Leguminosae; 572/MM//2020	Jangli MatterUR, PN, PT Jangli MattriSR Marghayo HpayPS KukarmanyPS Jangli MatarSN	Pods	AL, FO, GL, HS, RS, WP, WL; March–April	CookingCR**, SN** Raw snacksSH*, SI**	Very commonSN CommonSH RareCR Very rareSI
Launaea procumbens (Roxb.) Ramayya & Rajagopal; Asteracae; 821/MM//2020	DodakUR, PN BhathalaPT HundPH, GJ, KM DodhkSR SondrashiPS AlakooPS BhattarSN	Leaves	AL, FO, GL, GR, RS, SH, WP, WL; March–April	Raw snacksSN***, SI*, CR**, QA	Very commonSI CommonSN RareQA Very rareCR
Lepidium apetalum Willd.; Brassicaceae; 505/MM//2020	Jangli Khoob KalanUR BashkyPS, PH, PT Desi HalyunSR BurchanHN HanonPS HarfPS HaleemPS	Leaves	FO, GL, HS, MS, SH, WP, WL; July–August	CookingSN, CR**, HN*, QA**	Very commonSN CommonCR RareQA Very rareHN
Lepidium draba L.; Brassicaceae; 459/MM//2020	SennaUR Suchi SennaPN, PH, GJ, PT Koori SanaSR Ghora WalSN DadhwalSN	Leaves, Seeds	DL, FO, GR; April–July	Raw snacksQA*, SI* SaladHN*, SN*	Very commonSN CommonQA RareHN Very rareSI
Malva neglecta Wallr.; Malvaceae; 665/MM//2020	Sitara SunchalPN, SR TikalayPS Jungali SoxalKM SonchalUR, HN, PT, PH KhubasiHI	Leaves	AL, DL, FO, GL, GR, RS, SH, WP, WL; March–April	CookingSN**, SH***, SI*, QA*	Very commonSI CommonQA RareSN Very rareSH
Malva parviflora L.; Malvaceae; 510/MM//2020	Jangli SonchalUR, PN, PT, HN Jungali SoxalKM Jangli KhubasiHI	Fruits	AL, DL, FO, GL, GR, RS, SH, WP, WL; March–April	CookingSH, QA* Herbal teaCR*, SN**	Very commonSH CommonQA RareCR Very rareSN
Malva sylvestris L.; Malvaceae; 564/MM//2020	Jamni PhoolUR MethraiPN, PS, SR KhawazamaryPS SamchalPT, PH, KM KhabaziHN	Leaves	RS, SH; April–May	CookingSH**, SI***, QA, SN**	Very commonSN CommonSI RareSH Very rareQA
Mentha arvensis L.; Lamiaceae; 693/MM//2020	PodinaUR, PN, PT, PH PodnaSR ShinshobaiPS PodinaGJ, HN	Leaves	AL, GL; March–April, August–September	ChutneySH***, SN***, SI** CookingSH*, SN**, SI**, CR* Herbal teaHN**, SI** SpiceCR**, SH*, SN*	Very commonHN CommonCR, SI RareSI Very rareSH
Mentha longifolia (L.) L.; Lamiaceae; 698/MM//2020	Jangli PodinaUR, PN, KM Chita PodnaSR, HN, PT, PH VaylanaiPS ShinshobaiPS BareenaSN	Leaves	FO, GL, HS, SL, SH, WL; May–June, August–September	ChutneySN**, SH** CookingSN*, SH* Herbal teaSI***, CR** SpiceCR*, SI**, QA**	Very commonSI CommonCR RareQA Very rareSN
Mentha pulegium L.; Lamiaceae; 659/MM//2020	Jamni PodinaUR, PN, PT, PH Desi PodnaSR PudinaKM	Leaves	AL, FO, GL, HS, RS, SL, SH, WL; March–April, August–September	ChutneyHN*, SI** Herbal teaQA**, SN**	Very commonHN CommonSN RareSI Very rareQA
Mentha royleana Wall. ex Benth.; Lamiaceae; 631/MM//2020	Sofaid PodinaUR, PN, PT, PH Chitta PodnaSR, HN Jangli PodinaKM	Leaves	AL, FO, GL, HS, RS, SL, SH, WL; March–April	ChutneySH**, SN* CookingSH*, SN* Herbal teaCR***, HN*	Very commonSN CommonSH RareHN Very rareCR
Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata (Wall. & G. Don) Cif.; Oleaceae; 746/MM//2020	KahouUR, PN, PT KaoGJ, KM, PH, SR ShwawanPS KhunaPS KaowHN KahoHN	Fruits	AL; August–September	Raw snacksQA**, SH**, SI*, HN*	Very commonSH CommonSI RareQA Very rareHN
Opuntia dillenii (Ker Gawl.) Haw.; Cactaceae; 699/MM//2020	KhashiUR ThorPH, GJ, KM Peeli SaroonPN Peela SaroonPT Peela RayeaSR WorakiPS ShershamPS Hoob SublanPS HakseerPS	Leaves	AL, GL, HS, RS, SH, WP; March–April	CookingSN**, SH*, HN*, QA	Very commonHN CommonSH RareQA Very rare SN
Oxalis corniculata L.; Oxalidaceae; 732/MM//2020	Peeli BootiUR Choti lonakPN LonakSR TherwashkaPS Bibi ShaftalaPS TarookayPS Khati ButiHN KhatiKM	Leaves	AL, FO, GL, GR, HS, RS, SH, WP, WL; February–March	ChutneyCR**, QA* CookingSI**, SN**	Very commonCR CommonSI RareQA Very rareSN
Phoenix sylvestris (L.) Roxb.; Arecaceae; 501/MM//2020	Jangli KhajoorUR, PN, PT, HN Desi KhajoorGJ, PH, KM PindSR Chotti KhagoorPS KhajiSN KhajurHI	Fruits	AL, DL, GL, RS; June–July	JamQA* Raw snacksSN*, HN, SH	Very commonSH CommonSN RareHN Very rareQA
Physalis divaricata D. Don; Solanaceae; 569/MM//2020	Jungli BerryUR Jangli TamatorPN, SR HundusiGJ, PT, PH, KM Band MalkhovjPS DelhuuSN	Fruits	FO, GL, HS, SL, SH, WP; August–September	Raw SnacksSN*, SI*, HN**, QA**	Very commonSI CommonQA RareHN Very rareSN
Pistia stratiotes L.; Araceae; 515/MM//2020	Jall KhumbiUR, HI, KM Jall ShamkalaGJ, PT, PH NargisPN, PT JaruSN	Leaves	WP; March–April	CookingSN*, SH, SI*** SaladQA*	Very commonSN CommonSI RareSH Very rareQA
Polygonum plebeium R.Br.; Polygonaceae; 531/MM//2020	Gorakh PanUR DroonkPN BandokiPS Gull SrahPS KhowarSN Chimati SaagHI	Stems	AL, FO, GL, GR, HS, MS, RS, SL, SH, WP, WL; March–April	CookingSN**, SI**, CR*, HN	Very commonSI CommonCR RareHN Very rareSN
Portulaca oleracea L.; Portulacaceae; 865/MM//2020	Kulfa LonakUR, PN Lorniki BootiPT, GJ, KM Lorni BootiSR VarhoriPS LoonkSN KhurfaHN	Leaves, Stems	FO, GL, HS, RS, SH, WP, WL; August–September	CookingSN**, SH*, HN*, QA**	Very commonSH CommonHN RareSN Very rareQA
Portulaca quadrifida L.; Portulacaceae; 753/MM//2020	Lornak BootiUR, PN LorankiPT, GJ, PH LonakSR WakhoraiPS PakharaiPS LoonkSN LunakKM KolfaHN	Leaves, Stems	FO, GL, GR, HS, MS, RS, SL, SH, WP; August–September	CookingSH**, SN*, CR*, QA	Very commonCR CommonSN RareSH Very rareQA
Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce; Leguminosae; 745/MM//2020	JandUR, PN, PT, PH, KM JandiSR KandiSN Jangli MatarKM JhandHI KhejriHI	Gum, Pods	DL, FO, GR, HS, RS, SP, SL, WP; August–September	FermentationSN*, CR** JamQA**, SH*	Very commonQA CommonSH RareCR Very rareSN
Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC.; Leguminosae; 547/MM//2020	KikarUR Phari KikarPN, PT, GJ, KM, SR Sindhi KikarPH KikarPS Angrezi BaburSN Velayti KikarHN Jungli KikarHI	Gum, Pods	AL, FO, GR, HS, RS, WP; August–September	FermentationSI, HN*, CR JamSH**, SN*	Very commonSH CommonSN RareHN Very rareSI, CR
Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC.; Leguminosae; 855/MM//2020	Jangli LobiaUR, PN, PH, KM Jangli ArwanPT HerdalSR	Pods	AL, FO, HS, RS, WP, WL; March–April	CookingSN, SH*, SI**, CR	Very commonCR CommonSI RareSN Very rareSH
Rumex dentatus L.; Polygonaceae; 812/MM//2020	KhatkalPN, PT, PH, KM Jangli PalakUR, GJ, SR Sarkari PalakPS ZamdaPS Jangli PalakSN HullahHN OlaHN	Leaves	AL, FO, GL, HS, RS, SL, SH, WP, WL; March–April	CookingSN**, SH**, SI**, HN	Very commonSI CommonHN RareSH Very rareSN
Salvadora oleoides Decne.; Salvadoraceae; 690/MM//2020	JallUR VanGJ, KM JhalPT, PH PiluPN,SR KhabbarPS KhabarSN KallijariHN	Fruits	DL, FO, GR, HS, SP, WP; August–September	ChutneyHN*, CR* FermentationSH*, SN** JamSH*, HN*, CR*	Very commonSH CommonSN RareCR Very rareHN
Salvadora persica L.; Salvadoraceae; 747/MM//2020	PeloUR, SR, GJ KhabarSN PiluPN, PT, PH, KM DiyarSN KallijariHN JaalHI	Fruits	DL, GR, RS, SP, SL, WP; August–September	FermentationSH*, SN* JamSI*, HN**	Very commonSH CommonSN RareSI Very rareHN
Salvia moorcroftiana Wall. ex Benth.; Lamiaceae; 530/MM//2020	Tokham BelagaUR LapraPN BelangooSR DersaiPS SidraiPS Jungle TamookhKM ShwankoSN KallijariHN Khesari DaalHI	Stems	FO, HS, SL, SH, WP; May–June	Raw snacksSN***, SH, QA **, CR*	Very commonSH CommonQA RareCR Very rareSN
Salvia nubicola Wall. ex Sweet; Lamiaceae; 841/MM//2020	HernarPN DarshoolPS KallijariHN Khesari DaalHI	Leaves	FO, HS, RS, SH, WP, WL; August–September	CookingSH**, SI*, HN***, QA	Very commonSI CommonSH RareHN Very rareQA
Senna italica Mill.; Leguminosae; 479/MM//2020	Ghora WalSN	Seeds	GL, GR, HS, MS, RS; April–June	Raw snacksSN*, SH*, SI, QA**	Very commonSN CommonQA RareSH Very rareSI
Senna occidentalis (L.) Link; Leguminosae; 576/MM//2020	LobiaUR, PN, GJ, KM Desi ArwanSR, PT, PH Ghora WalSN	Pods	AL, FO, HS, RS, WP, WL; March–April	CookingSN**, SH, CR*, QA	Very commonCR CommonSN RareQA Very rareSH
Sisymbrium irio L.; Brassicaceae; 750/MM//2020	Khud-e-KalanKM KhashiUR, PN, PT, PH Peeli BootiSR WorakiPS ShershamPS Hoob SublanPS HakseerPS KhubkalanHN KhakasiHN	Leaves	AL, GL, HS, RS, SH, WP; March–April	CookingSN, SH**, SI***, HN**	Very commonSI CommonSN RareHN Very rareSH
Solanum americanum Mill.; Solanaceae; 636/MM//2020	MakaoUR Kainch MainchPN Katch MatchPT MohkriPH, GJ, KM KarveloonSR Kach machaoPS MalkhovjPS MalgabaiPS	Fruits	AL, FO, GL, GR, HS, RS, SH, WP; June–July	ChutneySI*, SH Herbal drinkSN**, SI Raw snacksHN*, SH, SI*, SN**	Very commonSH CommonSI RareHN Very rareSN
Solanum incanum L.; Solanaceae; 727/MM//2020	Jangli KhashiUR Jangli BainganPN, PT MahokariPS Kori WalSR MahoraSN	Fruits	FO, GL, HS, SH, WP; June–July	ChutneySH, SN* Raw snacksQA**, HN**	Very commonSH CommonQA RareHN Very rareSN
Solanum surattense Burm. f.; Solanaceae; 758/MM//2020	Neeli Khurd KataiUR Choti KandiariPN MahoriPT, GJ, PH, KM Kandiari WalhSR MarkondayePS SpeenazghaiPS KanderiSN MohkreeHN	Fruits	DL, FO, GR, HS, MS, RS, SP, SL; October–November	Raw SnacksSN, CR*, HN*, QA*	Very commonHN CommonQA RareCR Very rareSN
Solanum villosum Mill.; Solanaceae; 415/MM//2020	MakoUR, SN Kaach MachPN, PT, GJ, KM KarveloonSR	Fruits	GL, GR, HS, MS; March–May	ChutneySI*, HN* Raw snacksSH**, SN**	Very commonSI CommonSH RareSN Very rareHN
Sonchus asper (L.) Hill; Asteracae; 666/MM//2020	BhattalUR Malai BootiPN DodhiPT, PH, GJ DodhakSR Soon LattiPS KasniSN DodalKM	Leaves	DL, FO, GL, HS, RS, SL, SH; March–April	CookingSH**, HN***, SN	Very commonSH CommonSN Very rareHN
Sonchus oleraceus (L.) L.; Asteracae; 713/MM//2020	BhattalUR Malai BootiPN DodhakPT Peeli DodhakSR TarizhaPS Soon DodakPS KasniSN	Leaves	AL, FO, GR, RS, SH; March–April	CookingSN*, SI**, HN***, QA**	Very commonSI CommonQA RareHN Very rareSN
Stellaria media (L.) Vill.; Caryophyllaceae; 796/MM//2020	Kangni BootiUR Phoolan CheeriPN Cheeri PtaPT StalliPH, GJ, KM Chitti BootiSR VilaghoriPS Badsha SabaPS Bin BatorhiPS Buch-BuchaHI	Leaves	AL, FO, GL, HS, MS, RS, SL, SH, WP; March–April	CookingSN***, SH** Herbal teaCR**, SI	Very commonSH CommonSN RareCR Very rareSI
Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers.; Leguminosae; 429/MM//2020	Bansa-BansuPN, PT, PH, GJ, KM SarphookaPS HaldriSR MaheeroSN Ban NilHI	Pods	GL, GR, HS; March–May	CookingSN**, SH*, SI, QA*	Very commonSI CommonSH RareQA Very rareSN
Tribulus terrestris L.; Zygophyllaceae; 539/MM//2020	PakhraPS, PT, KM BhakhraUR, SR BakhroSN MelaiPS GhokruHN	Fruits	DL, FO, GL, GR, HS, MS, RS, SP, SL, SH, WP; August–September	Herbal teaSN*, SH, SI**, HN*	Very commonSH CommonSI RareHN Very rareSN
Trigonella anguina Delile; Leguminosae; 568/MM//2020	Jangli MeethreUR, PN, PT,GJ, SR Jungle MathKM	Leaves, Seeds	AL, DL, FO, GL, GR, HS, RS, SH, WP, WL; March–April	FermentationSH**, HN*, SI* Raw snacksSN	Very commonSH CommonHN RareSN Very rareSI
Trigonella corniculata Sibth. & Sm.; Leguminosae; 615/MM//2020	MeethreUR, PN, PT,GJ, SR Jungle MathKM	Leaves, Seeds	AL; March–April	FermentationQA*, CR, SN*, SH*	Very commonCR CommonQA RareSN Very rareSH
Veronica anagallis-aquatica L.; Plantaginaceae; 834/MM//2020	Hazar DaniUR Obo SabaPS	Leaves	AL, FO, GL, HS, RS, SH, WP; March–April	CookingSN***, SH, SI*, QA*	Very commonQA CommonSI RareSH Very rareSN
Vicia sativa L.; Leguminosae; 767/MM//2020	Jangli LobiaUR Jangli RewariPN, GJ Jangli RawanSR MutriKM, PT, PH PervathaPS ChilowPS	Pods	AL, FO, GL, HS, SL, SH, WP, WL; March–April	CookingSN**, SH*, SI**, CR**	Very commonSN CommonSH RareCR Very rareSI
Withania coagulans (Stocks) Dunal; Solanaceae; 741/MM//2020	PaneerUR Jangly ChanaPT AkriPN, PH, SR KhamzoraPS AshwgandhasSN Asgandh NagoriSN	Leaves, Fruits	DL, FO, GL, SP, SH; March–April	Herbal drinkSN, SH, SI*, CR	Very commonSH CommonSI RareCR Very rareSN
Ziziphus jujuba Mill.; Rhamnaceae; 726/MM//2020	BairiUR, PN Seo BairPT, SR Jand BeriPH, GJ BeraPS Moti BerPS KarkanraPS BerSN BerKM	Fruits	DL, FO, GL, GR, HS, RS, SP; August–September	Raw snacksSN**, HN***, SI**, SH**	Very commonSI CommonHN RareSN Very rareSH
Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. f.) Wight & Arn.; Rhamnaceae; 612/MM//2020	Jangli BairiUR, PN, GJ Kathy BeerPT, SR KarkanrPS Chotti BerPS AnanePS Bada BeraPS Jhangugli BerSN Jahri BerHN	Fruits	FO, GL, HS, RS, SP; April–May	Raw snacksSN**, HN***, CR**, SH**	Very commonSH CommonHN RareSN Very rareCR
Ziziphus oxyphylla Edgew.; Rhamnaceae; 409/MM//2020	Surkh BairUR, PN Saib BairSR, PH, PT, GJ HeilaneiyPS PhitniHN	Fruits	FO, GL, HS, RS, SP; April–May	Raw snacksSN*, SH*, SI***, CR*	Very commonSI CommonCR RareSN Very rareSH
Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf.; Rhamnaceae; 413/MM//2020	Jangli BairUR Jhar BeriPN, PT, GJ, KM Jangali BairSR BerSN	Fruits	GL, GR, HS, MS, RS; March–June	Raw snacksSN*, SI*, SH*, CR*	Very commonCR CommonSH RareSN Very rareSI
Coprinus comatus (O.F. Müll.) Pers.; Agaricaceae; 400/MM//2020	KhumbhiUR, PN, PT, GJ, SR GuchiPS KlikichokPS	Arial parts	GL, GR, HS; August–September	CookingSN*, SH, SI*, HN**	Very commonSI CommonSH RareSN Very rareHN

Gathering areas: AL: arable land, DL: dry land, FO: forest, GL: grassland, GR: graveyard, HS: hilly slopes, MS: mountain summits, RS: roadside, SP: sandy places, SL: scrubland, SH: shady places, WP: paste places, WL: wet land; Local Languages: UR: Urdu, PN: Punjabi, PT: Pothwari, PH, Pahari, GJ, Gojri, HN: Hindko, SR: Saraiki, SN: Sindhi, PS: Pashto, KS: Kashmiri, HI: Hindi; Religious faith: SN: Sunnis, SH: Shias, SI: Sikhs, HN: Hindus, CR: Christians, QA: Ahmadis (Qadiani); Quotation frequency in percent: 1–25% = without asterisk, 26–50% = *, 51–75% = **, 76–100% = ***.

The most commonly quoted wild food plants and the typologies of their food preparations are reported in Figure 3.

Figure 3.

Most commonly used wild food plants and their uses.

The most important site for the gathering of wild food plants were grasslands, found sometimes at high elevations, where people normally bring animals for grazing. Summer herders were the most knowledgeable ethnobotanical informants and this show the importance of the link between resilience of wild food plant knowledge and the survival of pastoralist activities. However, the transmission of ethnobotanical practices from elders to the younger generation is continuously decreasing due to the generation gap and fast changing lifestyle. With the modernization of life, the younger generation is moving towards cities for education and business opportunities, which is one of the major reasons for the decline of TEK described in many ethnobotanical studies.

Some important wild food plants (Figure 4) and dishes prepared by the visited communities were available for photographing (Figure 5). Traditional culinary processing included cooking the plants as vegetables (43 mentions), followed by raw snacks (33), confirming what documented in other ethnobotanical studies too [73,74,75]. Raw snacks were eaten especially by transhumant herders, and it has been shown that herding develops specific linkages between humans and their surrounding ecosystem [76,77,78,79]. Herding is also linked to the use of particular types of wild food plants: for example, in Iraq and Kurdistan shepherds consumed more raw snacks than nearby horticulturists [9,76]. Moreover, pastures have been documented as very important gathering habitats of wild food plants [80,81].

Figure 4.

Some examples of wild food plants of Jhelum district: (a) Solanum surattense; (b) Agave americana; (c) Solanum incanum; (d) Rumex dentatus; (e) Solanum americanum; (f) Tribulus terrestris; (g) Cucumis melo; (h) Acacia modesta; (i) Sonchus asper; (j) Fagonia indica; (k) Capparis decidua; (l) Ziziphus jujuba; (m) Oxalis corniculata; (n) Amaranthus spinosus; (o) Chenopodium murale; (p) Rhynchosia minima; (q) Opuntia dillenii; (r) Convolvulus arvensis; (s) Citrullus colocynthis; (t) Gisekia pharnaceoides; (u) Lathyrus sativus; (v) Withania coagulans; (w) Trigonella corniculata; (x) Phoenix sylvestris.

Figure 5.

Traditional culinary uses of wild food plants by different linguistic and religious communities reported from the study area: (a) mixture of black pepper and Mentha royleana; (b) mixture of chilies and Mentha pulegium; (c) powdered Citrullus colocynthis; (d) powedered Mentha arvensis in yogurt; (e) bread made with rice flour with Opuntia dillenii pulp; (f) rice cooked with Amaranthus viridis seeds and Cucumis melo as salad; (g) herbal drink made with Cannabis sativa; (h) jam made by Prosopis cineraria fruits.

Leaves were the most used plant part (38 times used), especially in salads, herbal teas, herbal drinks, as raw snacks, in chutneys, and as cooked vegetables. One third of the reported plants (27 taxa) were only gathered during the spring season.

It was noted that sweet fruits in particular were consumed as raw snacks especially by local communities with a herding lifestyle. Thirty wild food plants were consumed as raw snacks by all religious faith groups, especially Capparis decidua, Caragana ambigua, Cucumis melo, Lathyrus aphaca, Lathyrus sativus, Phoenix sylvestris, Salvadora persica, Solanum americanum, Solanum incanum, Solanum villosum, Ziziphus jujube, Ziziphus nummularia, Ziziphus oxyphylla, and Ziziphus spina-christi, many also earlier reported by Sõukand and Kalle [82]. Although Solanum americanum was recognized as containing toxic alkaloids [83], especially in its fruit [84], informants used fruits as raw snacks without reporting any toxic effects. Similarly, some other important food preparations in the study area were herbal drinks, salads and chutney (Figure 5).

On a global scale, it has been found that folk knowledge has been decreasing, mostly due to modern lifestyle changes and urbanization [50,71,85,86,87,88,89,90]. Gathering wild food plants is linked to local biodiversity and especially local cultural practices [91] and in our field study wild plant knowledge among younger informants was limited, similar to what was found in many other studies, for example, Kalle and Sõukand [92].

3.2. Cross-Religious Comparison

Cross-religious comparison of the used wild food plants (Figure 6) shows a remarkable homogeneity and the absence of any plant cultural markers (i.e., plants used by one group only); at the same time, however, not a single taxa is used by all the six considered groups and the majority of recorded wild food plants are used by three to four groups.

Figure 6.

Venn diagram showing the overlaps of the recorded wild food plants among the six considered groups.

However, the Jaccard’s distance heat map (Figure 7) shows high dissimilarity between some groups. While both Muslim groups, Shias and Sunnis, appeared to be closest in their selection of the wild food plants, Hindus and Christians are the most distant.

Figure 7.

Hierarchical clustering tree coupled with heat map depicting Jaccard Dissimilarity Indices calculated by comparing the wild food plants quoted by the six considered groups.

The heat map (Figure 7) allows us to distinguish two easily comparable clusters within the six religious groups: a subgroup of Shias, Sunnis, and Sikhs, which used the highest number of plants (from 56 to 73) and a subgroup using far fewer taxa (Christians, Hindus, and Ahmadis (from 34 to 47). Bearing in mind that Shias and Sunnis together used all 78 listed taxa, there is a clear pattern of dissimilarity among the second subgroup (Figure 8).

Figure 8.

Intuitive best fit Venn diagrams comparing the recorded wild food plants among the six religious groups divided into two clusters.

Sunnis, using a slightly higher number of taxa than Shias, had more similarities with all the other groups. This could be due to the fact that the Sunni faith is the dominant one in the study area.

Figure 9 shows the comparison among the six groups in terms of specific food uses of the recorded wild food plants; the diagram shows a high diversity as well as a few specific cultural markers.

Figure 9.

Venn diagram showing the number of overlaps of the recorded wild food plant uses among the studied religious groups; the diagram shows also the food uses uniquely recorded within each group.

The similarity heat maps on the typology of wild plants food uses (Figure 10) demonstrates similar tendencies, outlining even greater differences between Christians and Ahmadis compared to Hindus, and also showing more divergences even among Sunnis and Shias. This suggests that there is a higher similarity in the used wild food plants than the way taxa are actually consumed in the study area; moreover, each considered group retains unique wild food plant utilizations.

Figure 10.

Hierarchical clustering tree coupled with heat map depicting Jaccard Dissimilarity Indices calculated by comparing the actual food utilizations of the recorded wild food plants among the six considered groups.

While our results show remarkable social and cultural exchanges between the different religious groups (sharing the same repertoire of plants), we can also see clear differences among the ways local food plants are actually used. This may to be linked to the different exposure the diverse religious groups have to traditional rural lifestyles and to nature. Nowadays, only Shias, Sunnis and Ahmadis have for example retained traditional livelihood practices (farming), while the local community members belonging to the three other faiths (Christians, Hindus, and Sikhs) are partially employed in city jobs, and some of them even practice as professional herbalists. The different relationships to farming that shape the differences in wild food plants-centered TEK among the groups may also be due to diverse levels of land access and land ownership.

While members of the different religions in the study area generally do not intermarry, they very regularly interact in urban settings and this, over centuries, may have contributed to a homogenization of TEK and cultural adaptation to the dominant groups.

The study participants confirmed that the use of wild plant species as daily food has significantly decreased, as well as the use of wild food plants on special occasions and religious festivities. This may be due to the fact that study participants perceive nowadays foraging (collecting wild food plants) as very time consuming, while cultivated plants are relatively easy to purchase in the immediate vicinity, and especially in bulk if and when required on special occasions. These trends may further lead to rapid TEK erosion in the near future, and further ethnobotanical works documenting local uses of wild food plants could be crucial for the food security and the preservation of the bio-cultural heritage of rural communities [93,94].

Food taboos restricting the consumption of some plants and fruits under certain conditions have been described from many regions of the world, involving followers of various religions including Hindus [95]. Similarly, in this study, some Hindus participants reported that the fruits of Ziziphus oxyphylla and Ziziphus jujuba were gathered only in mountain areas, hilly slopes and scrubland in time of need as famine foods only. Hence, the Hindus, but others possibly as well, follow the specific rules in what they consume, especially like when pregnant or menstruating. Food taboos might influence the uses of certain wild plants with regard to seasons or a consumer’s health condition, gender or age [95]. The participants pointed out a few other idiosyncratic food uses of wild plants within specific groups as well; these uses mostly included medicinal foods, i.e., food preparations considered consumed for counteracting specific diseases or health conditions, or ritual uses linked to specific cultural beliefs. For example, the gum of Acacia modesta and Acacia nilotica is added in “halwa” (a local sweet prepared by using clarified butter and wheat bran), and recommended to women after childbirth to avoid general weakness and back pains among the Muslim participants. Similarly, Sikhs conveyed that a limited dosage (about 250–300 mL) of a herbal drink made with Cannabis sativa can induce activeness; the informants claimed that their ancestors use the same preparation during battles in the 19th and 20th century. The herbal tea prepared by using fruits of Tribulus terrestris is drunk by Hindu women in order to improve lactation. Finally, Muslims add leaves of Ziziphus jujuba and Ziziphus numularia in boiling water, and use them for bathing dead persons, as they perceive that would delay their decomposition until burial. The rest of documented wild edible plant species as food in this study may applicable to all gender, religion and age groups equally, and no associated food taboo is mentioned by any participant.

3.3. Comparison with the Pakistani Food Ethnobotanical Literature

The comprehensive comparison with the Pakistani wild food ethnobotanical literature [49,50,51,52,70,71,72] of Pakistan showed that a remarkable number of species were documented as wild food plants, for the first time, in the study regions: Acacia modesta, Acacia nilotica, Agave americana, Boerhavia repens, Capparis decidua, Chenopodium murale, Chenopodium vulvaria, Coprinus comatus, Corchorus depressus, Corchorus tridens, Cucumis melo, Dysphania ambrosioides, Fagonia indica, Gisekia pharnaceoides, Indigofera hochstetteri, Lathyrus sativus, Lepidium apetalum, Mentha arvensis, Mentha pulegium, Olea europaea, Phoenix sylvestris, Pistia stratiotes, Prosopis cineraria, Prosopis juliflora, Rhynchosia minima, Salvadora oleoides, Salvadora persica, Senna italica, Senna occidentalis, Solanum incanum, Tephrosia purpurea, Tribulus terrestris, Trigonella anguina, Trigonella corniculata, and Withania coagulans.

Despite the fact that in our study three quarters of the wild food plants were reported also in other areas of northern Pakistan [50,52], pairwise Jaccard’s distance between our findings and those arising from field studies recently conducted in various regions of Pakistan shows little similarity and a very large diversification of wild food plant uses within the country (Figure 11). This may be explained by the very diverse geography and natural environments, as well as a remarkable cultural diversity, which ultimately and most importantly affect the diversity of food customs of the country.

Figure 11.

Pairwise Jaccard Dissimilarity Indices calculated by comparing the current study with other wild food ethnobotanical field works previously conducted in Pakistan.

Based on a comprehensive literature review, we found that some wild food plant species recorded in the current study have rarely been documented as food ingredients elsewhere in Pakistan and its neighboring countries. These include Aerva javanica, Agave americana, Amaranthus spinosus, Boerhavia repens, Caragana ambigua, Commelina benghalensis, Convolvulus arvensis, Corchorus depressus, Corchorus tridens, Gisekia pharnaceoides, Indigofera hochstetteri, Lathyrus aphaca, Lepidium apetalum, Mentha royleana, Opuntia dillenii, Oxalis corniculata, Physalis divaricata, Pistia stratiotes, Polygonum plebeium, Rhynchosia minima, Trigonella anguina, Trigonella corniculata, and Veronica anagallis-aquatica.

4. Conclusions

Our study reported seventy-seven plant taxa and one mushroom used as cultural foods among six different religions. The cross-religious comparison showed high overlap in the used taxa between Shias and Sunnis, who together used all listed taxa in the study region and contributed the most detailed information about specific, commonly used wild food plants. Comparison of the other four religious groups showed much less overlap between the groups and greater variation in the numbers of used plants. Urban Hindus and Christians used the least number of plants, followed by rural Sikhs and urban Ahmadis. A comparative analysis with the wild food plant literature of Pakistan showed a high diversification of wild plant uses in the study region, due to both environmental and cultural factors. This study also concluded that there is relatively higher homogeneity in use of plant species as food compared to method (preparations) of use of the same among the religious groups. Therefore, if one religious group prepares herbal drink of a plant species, the other might prefer to prepare jam of the same, depicting possession of unique recipes.

The inherited cultural knowledge of wild food plants of Hindus, Sikhs, Christians, and Ahmadis, in particular, faces the greatest challenges, as these groups have apparently undergone cultural adaptation to an urban, “modern” lifestyle. The present study may provide a foundation for the promotion of eco-tourism and for supporting sustainable development programs. Several of the recorded wild food plants are still sold in local markets (e.g., Capparis, Mentha, Olea, Phoenix, Rhynchosia, Salvadora, Salvia, Senna, Solanum, Trigonella, Vicia, and Ziziphus spp.) and this could represent the basis of wild food plant-centered local projects, aiming to revitalize TEK and generate small-scale economies providing some cash-income for rural communities.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.S.A., A.P., and M.M.; methodology, A.P. and M.S.A.; validation, K.H.B. and S.K.C.; formal analysis, A.M.K. and R.S.; investigation, M.M.; resources, M.M., R.S., M.A.A., and A.P.; data curation, M.M.; writing—original draft preparation, M.M. and M.S.A.; writing—review and editing, A.M.K., R.W.B., A.P., and R.S.; supervision, M.S.A. and K.H.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study has not been financially supported by any funding agency/organization.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Institutional Review Board (or Ethics Committee) of Department of Botany, University of Gujrat, Pakistan (protocol code 2019-12A; date of approval Wednesday, 16 January 2019)

Informed Consent Statement

Prior informed consent was verbally obtained from all the study participants and Code of Ethics of the International Society of Ethnobiology (http://www.ethnobiology.net/what-we-do/core-programs/ise-ethics-program/code-of-ethics/, accessed on 6 March 2020) was strictly followed.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to avoid any inter-controversies among the studied religious groups.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.