Table 1.
Study characteristics and adherence to dietary guidelines.
| Reference | Study Design | Country | N and Sex (% Female) | Age | Race/Ethnicity | Dietary Measurement | Dietary Guideline |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| High-Income countries | |||||||
| Ewers et al., 2020 [28] | Longitudinal (2003–2015) | Denmark | 100,191 45.2% female |
20–30 y–40–100 y 58.0 ± 13.1 |
NR | FFQ | Danish Food Based Dietary Guidelines |
| Schwartz and Vernarelli 2019 [35] | Cross-sectional | USA | 3194 | ≥18 yo | NR | 1× 24hR | Dietary Guidelines for Americans/MyPlate or MyPyramid |
| Schuh et al., 2019 [29] | Longitudinal (1993–2016) | Switzerland | M = 689 50.5% female |
35–74: 51.9 yo ± 11 yo | Non-Swiss: 31.4% | FFQ | Swiss Dietary Guidelines |
| Schroeter et al., 2019 [27] | Case-study | USA | 57 | 19.94 ± 1.20 | NR | 1× 24hR | Dietary Guidelines for Americans/MyPlate |
| Irwin et al., 2019 [70] | Cross-sectional | Australia | 115 67.8% female |
M = 22 ± 5 y | NR | Records | Australian Dietary Guidelines |
| Harrison et al., 2019 [36] | Cross-sectional | Canada | 50.2% female | M = 45.0 ± 0.3 y | NR | 1× 24hR | 2019 Canada Food Guide |
| Dıaz-Méndez and Garcıa-Espejo 2019 [30] |
Longitudinal (2006–2011–12) | Spain | M = 25,2425 | ≥16 yo | NR | FFQ | Guide to Healthy Eating/Spanish Society for Community Nutrition |
| Mestral et al. 2019 [37] | Cross-Sectional | Switzerland | 15450 53.0% female |
48.8 ± 17.4 y | NR | FFQ | Swiss Dietary Guidelines |
| Bel et al. 2019 [38] | Cross-Sectional | Belgium | 3146 | 3–64 y: stratified by age | NR | 1× 24hR + FFQ | Flemish Active Food Triangle |
| Schwartz and Vernarelli et al. 2018 [35] | Cross-sectional | USA | 3194 | 18–50+ y | NR | 1× 24hR | Dietary Guidelines for Americans/MyPlate or MyPyramid |
| Jun et al., 2018 [59] | Cross-sectional | USA | 3142 100% female |
19–70 y | Non-Hispanic, White: 51.8% Non-Hispanic, Black: 19.3% Hispanic: 22.2% |
1× 24hR | Dietary Guidelines for Americans/MyPlate |
| Jones et al. 2018 | Cross-sectional | UK | 2045 56.5% female |
≥18 y | NR | 3d food record | UK Government Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition |
| Brassard et al. 2018 [67] | Cross-sectional | Canada | 1147 50.2% female |
18–65 y | Caucasian: 94.3% African-American: 2.4% Hispanic: 1.7% Other: 1.6% |
3× 24hR | 2007 Canada Food Guide |
| Al Thani et al., 2018 [39] | Cross-sectional | Qatar | 1109 48.6% female |
18–64 y | NR | FFQ | Qatar Dietary Guidelines |
| Stroebele-Benschop et al. 2018 [74] | Cross-sectional | German | 103 75.7% female |
18–30: 24.3 ± 3.1 y | NR | FFQ | German Nutrition Society |
| Chatelan et al., 2017 [40] | Cross-sectional | Switzerland | 2086 54.7% female |
18–75: 46.8 ± 15.8 y | NR | 2× 24hR | Swiss Dietary Guidelines |
| Mishra et al., 2015 [71] | Cross-sectional | Australia | 16227 100% female |
18–75: 43.5 ± 1.5 y | NR | FFQ | Australian Guide to Healthy Eating |
| Schumacher et al., 2014 [72] | Cross-sectional | Australia | 332 100% female |
13.7: 13.4–13.9 y | Australian: 86% (Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander: 11%) European: 10% Asian: 1% Other: 3% |
FFQ | Australian Guide to Healthy Eating |
| Yen and Lewis 2013 [32] | Randomized controlled trial | USA | 85:41 intervention vs. 44 control 100% female |
53.8 ± 6.6 y | Control vs. Intervention White: 95.5 vs. 100% African-American: 2.3% Hispanic: 2.3% |
FFQ | Dietary Guidelines for Americans/MyPlate |
| Abreu et al., 2013 [43] | Cross-sectional | Switzerland | 4371 53.8% female |
35–75: 57.6 ± 10.5 y | Switzerland: 65.1% | FFQ | Swiss Dietary Guidelines |
| Black and Billette 2013 [44] | Cross-sectional | Canada | 33,850 43.2% female |
2–51+ y | French-British Canadian: 57% Other: 43.1% |
2× 24hR | 2007 Canada Food Guide |
| Rossiter et al., 2012 [31] | Longitudinal (2002 and 2005) | Canada | 247 46.4% female |
14–16 y | NR | FFQ | 2007 Canada Food Guide |
| Park et al., 2012 [45] | Cross-sectional | South Korea | 394 53.8% female |
13.96 ± 0.44 y | NR | 1× 24hR | Korean National Dietary Guidelines |
| McDaniel and Belury, 2012 [60] | Cross-sectional | USA | 60 50.0% female |
25.5 ± 6.3 y | Non-Hispanic, White: 78.3% Non-Hispanic, Black: 5.0% Asian: 11.7% Indian: 5.0% |
FFQ | Dietary Guidelines for Americans, MyPyramid |
| Kirkpatrick et al., 2012 [46] | Cross-sectional | USA | 16,338 adults and children | Non-Hispanic, White: 41.1% Non-Hispanic, Black: 25.8% Mexican-American: 25.3% |
1× 24hR | Dietary Guidelines for Americans, MyPyramid | |
| Allen et al., 2011 [68] | Cross-sectional | Canada | 291 71.7% female |
20–35+ y | NR | Food record | 2007 Canada Dietary Guide |
| Winham and Florian 2010 [61] | Cross-sectional | USA | 171 100% female |
18–60: 34.4 ± 9.1 y | Hispanic: 76.7% Bicultural or English dominant: 23.4% |
FFQ | Dietary Guidelines for Americans, MyPyramid |
| Niclasen and Schnor 2010 [75] | Cross-sectional | Greenland | 2462 | 11–17 y | NR | FFQ | Greenlandic Board of Nutrition |
| Kristjansdottir et al., 2010 [33] | Randomized controlled trial | Iceland | 106: 58 intervention and 48 control | 3–9 y | NR | 3d food records | Food-based Dietary Guidelines set for Icelandic population |
| Kreb-smith et al., 2010 [62] | Cross-sectional | USA | 16338 | 2–71+ y (stratified by age group and sex) | NR | 2× 24hR | Dietary Guidelines for Americans, MyPyramid |
| Vandevijvere et al., 2009 [73] | Cross-sectional | Belgium | 3168 43.4% female |
≥15 y (stratified by age) | NR | 2× 24hR + FFQ | Flemish Active Food Triangle |
| Kranz et al., 2009 [63] | Cross-sectional | USA | 214 45.8% female |
2–12 y (stratified age) | Non-Hispanic, White: 47.7% Non-Hispanic, Black: 43.5% Non-Hispanic, Asian: 18.7% Other: 10.3% Hispanic: 14.0% |
3× 24hR | Dietary Guidelines for Americans, MyPyramid |
| John et al., 2008 [69] | Cross-sectional | Canada | 1410 | Grade 7 and 11 students | NR | 1× 24hR + FFQ | 2007 Canada Food Guide |
| Serra-Majem et al., 2007 [47] | Cross-sectional | Spain | 2160 53.9% female |
NR | NR | 2× 24hR + FFQ | Guide to Healthy Eating/Spanish Society for Community Nutrition |
| Tande et al., 2004 [48] | Cross-sectional | USA | 9111 51.4% female |
20–59: 37.4 ± 0.2 y | Non-Hispanic, White: 75% Non-Hispanic, Black: 10.4% Mexican-American: 5.9% Others: 8.5% |
1× 24hR | Dietary Guidelines for Americans, Food Pyramid |
| Pullen and Walker, 2002 [64] | Cross-sectional | USA | 371 100% female |
34–86: 62 y | White: 92.6% Black: 0.5% Hispanic: 2.2% Asian: 3.3% Native American: 0.8% Other: 0.5% |
FFQ | Dietary Guidelines for Americans, Food Pyramid |
| Anding et al., 2001 [65] | Cross-sectional | USA | 103 100% female |
17–42: 21.6 ± 4.6 y | Black: 23% White: 32% Asian: 20% Hispanic: 23% |
3d food records | Dietary Guidelines for Americans, Food Pyramid |
| Brady et al., 2000 [66] | Cross-sectional | USA | 109 56.9% female |
7–14:10.2 ± 1.7 y | NR | 1× 24hR | Dietary Guidelines for Americans, Food Pyramid |
| Munõz et al., 1997 [49] | Cross-sectional | USA | 3307 50.2% female |
2–19: stratified by age | White, Non-Hispanic: 67.9% Black, Non-Hispanic: 16.6% Hispanic: 11.9% |
2× 24hR | Dietary Guidelines for Americans, Food Pyramid |
| Cleveland et al., 1997 [50] | Cross-sectional | USA | 8181 58.7% female |
20–60+: stratified by age | White, Non-Hispanic:77.1% Black, Non-Hispanic: 11.8% Hispanic: 8.3% Others: 2.8% |
1× 24hR + 2 food records | Dietary Guidelines for Americans, Food Pyramid |
| Gambera et al., 1995 [34] | Randomized- trial | USA | 32 37.5% female |
33.3 ± 6 y | NR | 3d food records | Dietary Guidelines for Americans, Food Pyramid |
| Low- and middle-income countries | |||||||
| Steele et al., 2020 [54] | Cross-sectional | Brazil | 10,116 78.0% female |
18–60+ y: stratified by age | NR | FFQ | Dietary Guideline for the Brazilian Population 2014 |
| Ansari and Samara 2018 [52] | Cross-sectional | Egypt | 2422 53.8% female |
18.9 ± 1.4 y | NR | FFQ | WHO dietary guidelines for Eastern Mediterranean region |
| Sousa and Costa 2018 [53] | Cross-sectional | Brazil | 506 57.0% female |
20–50+ y: stratified by age | NR | 2× 24hR | Brazilian Dietary Guideline 2006/Food Pyramid |
| Louzada et al., 2018 [51] | Cross-sectional | Brazil | 32,898 | ≥19 y | NR | 2× 24hR | Dietary Guideline for the Brazilian Population 2014 |
| Tian et al., 2017 [55] | Cross-sectional | China | 14,452 51.9% female |
20–59: 42.8 ± 10.3 y | NR | 3× 24hR | Chinese Food Pagoda |
| Batis et al.., 2016 [41] | Cross-sectional | Mexico | 7983 50.6% female |
5–20+ y: stratified by age | NR | 1× 24hR | Mexican Dietary Guidelines |
| Chin Koo et al., 2016 [56] | Cross-sectional | Malaysia | 1773 48.6% female |
7–12: stratified by age | Malay: 59.2% Chinese: 19.5% Indian: 6.7% Others: 14.7% |
FFQ | Malaysian Dietary Guidelines |
| Verly-Jr et al. 2013 [42] | Cross-sectional | Brazil | 1661 56.5% female |
37.7 ± 29.9 y | NR | 2× 24hR | Dietary Guidelines for Brazilian population/Pyramid |
| Jayawardena et al., 2013 [57] | Cross-sectional | Sri Lanka | 490 65.5% female |
48.3 ± 15.6 y | Sinhalese: 75.6% Muslim: 5.9% Sri Lankan Tamil: 9.5% Indian Tamil: 9% |
2× 24hR | Food-based Dietary Guidelines for Sri Lanka and Dietary Guidelines for Brazilian population/Pyramid |
| Zhang et al., 2012 [58] | Cross-sectional | China | 2204 53.8% female |
12–17: 15.1 ± 1.9 y | NR | FFQ | Chinese Food Pagoda |
24hR: 24 h recall; M = mean; FFQ: Food Frequency Questionnaire, NR: Not Reported; Y = years. Note: Countries were identified as high and low- to middle-income countries based on the World Bank criteria.