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Journal of Peking University (Health Sciences) logoLink to Journal of Peking University (Health Sciences)
. 2021 Feb 22;53(2):420–424. [Article in Chinese] doi: 10.19723/j.issn.1671-167X.2021.02.032

TET蛋白家族与5-羟甲基胞嘧啶在干细胞及再生医学表观遗传调控中的作用

Roles of ten eleven translocation proteins family and 5-hydroxymethylcytosine in epigenetic regulation of stem cells and regenerative medicine

Jian-fang ZHAO 1,2, Dong LI 1, Yang AN 1,*
PMCID: PMC8072413  PMID: 33879920

Abstract

The methylation of cytosine is one of the most fundamental epigenetic modifications in mammalian genomes, and is involved in multiple crucial processes including gene expression, cell differentiation, embryo development and oncogenesis. In the past, DNA methylation was thought to be an irreversible process, which could only be diluted passively through DNA replication. It is now becoming increa-singly obvious that DNA demethylation can be an active process and plays a crucial role in biological processes. Ten eleven translocation (TET) proteins are the key factors modulating DNA demethylation. This family contains three members: TET1, TET2 and TET3. Although three TET proteins have relatively conserved catalytic domains, their roles in organisms are not repeated, and their expression has significant cell/organ specificity. TET1 is mainly expressed in embryonic stem cells, TET2 is mainly expressed in hematopoietic system, and TET3 is widely expressed in cerebellum, cortex and hippocampus. This family catalyzes 5-methylcytosine to 5-hydroxymethylcytosine and other oxidative products, reactivates silenced-gene expression, in turn maintains stem cell pluripotency and regulates lineage specification. With the development of tissue engineering, organ transplantation, autologous tissue transplantation and artificial prosthesis have been widely used in clinical treatment, but these technologies have limitations. Regenerative medicine, which uses stem cells and stem cell related factors for treatment, may provide alternative therapeutic strategies for multiple diseases. Among all kinds of human stem cells, adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) are the most prospective stem cell lineage since they have no ethical issues and can be easily obtained with large quantities. To date, ADSCs have been shown to have strong proli-feration capacity, secrete numerous soluble factors and have multipotent differentiation ability. However, the underlying mechanism of the proliferation, secretion, acquired pluripotency, and lineage specific differentiation of ADSCs are still largely unknown. Some studies have explored the role of epigenetic regulation and TET protein in embryonic stem cells, but little is known about its role in ADSCs. By studying the roles of TET proteins and 5-hydroxymethylcytosine in ADSCs, we could provide new theoretical foundation for the clinical application of ADSCs and the stem cell-based therapy. In the future, combined with bioprinting technology, ADSCs may be used in tissue and organ regeneration, plastic surgery reconstruction and other broader fields.

Keywords: Ten eleven translocation protein, 5-hydroxymethylcytosine, Adipose-derived stem cell, Regenerative medicine


表观遗传调控是对DNA及组蛋白的修饰,决定了何时、何地、以何种方式对遗传信息进行表达[1]。DNA甲基化是目前研究最多的表观遗传调控方式之一[2],将一个甲基共价结合在DNA胞嘧啶的5-碳位置上形成5-甲基胞嘧啶(5-methylcytosine, 5mC)。过去人们曾认为DNA甲基化是一个不可逆的过程,只能通过DNA复制过程来被动稀释,但近年来对TET(ten eleven translocation)蛋白的研究发现,TET蛋白家族可以催化5mC氧化生成5-羟甲基胞嘧啶(5-hydroxymethylcytosine, 5hmC)、5-甲酰胞嘧啶(5-formylcytosine, 5fC)和5-羧基胞嘧啶(5-carboxylcytosine, 5caC),从而消除DNA甲基化印记,促进“主动”DNA去甲基化过程[3]。随着组织工程技术的发展,器官移植、自体组织移植及人工假体已经广泛应用于临床治疗当中,但这些技术都存在局限性,而应用干细胞及干细胞相关因子进行治疗的再生医学则为解决这些问题提供了新的思路[4]。脂肪干细胞(adipose-derived stem cell, ADSCs)有着可大量获取、易于进行基因调控、且没有伦理学争议等优点[4],但迄今为止,调控ADSCs增殖及多向分化的分子生物学机制仍不甚清晰。目前已有一些研究探寻表观遗传调控及TET蛋白在胚胎干细胞中的作用,但其在ADSCs中所知甚少。本文简要介绍了TET蛋白家族及5hmC的结构及功能,总结了近年来TET蛋白及5hmC在哺乳动物干细胞中的研究进展,并探索其在ADSCs及再生医学中的潜在应用。

1. DNA甲基化、去甲基化与TET蛋白家族

DNA甲基化是最早发现的DNA表观遗传调控方式之一,其在基因表达调控和细胞分化过程中起着重要作用[5]。随着细胞分化,多能基因被表观遗传沉默,而组织特异性基因则表达的更加活跃。在早期胚胎发育过程中,DNA甲基化模式会被清除,直到胚胎着床、器官发育之前才重新建立[6],而异常的DNA甲基化水平则会导致肿瘤的发生[7]。很长一段时间以来,人们认为DNA甲基化是一个不可逆的调控过程,只能通过DNA复制来减少,但最近一些研究发现,TET蛋白家族可能通过修饰5mC来调控DNA去甲基化过程,从而使已经沉默的基因恢复表达。TET蛋白家族可以氧化5mC形成5hmC、5fC以及5caC,而这些氧化产物同时也是5mC去甲基化过程中的重要中间体[8-9]。很多研究表明,5hmC表达水平与基因表达调控、多能干细胞分化、神经元发育, 以及肿瘤发生密切相关[10],因此,TET蛋白家族很有可能介导了DNA去甲基化过程的第一步。TET蛋白生物功能的发现使人们对DNA去甲基化过程有了全新的认识,并提示DNA甲基化是一个动态可逆的过程。

2. TET蛋白家族的基本结构及作用

人TET蛋白家族包含TET1、TET2和TET3三个成员,所有TET蛋白都包含一个保守的双链β-螺旋结构域、一个富含半胱氨酸区和C端的核心催化结构域[11]。催化结构域内则包含α-酮戊二酸(alpha-ketoglutaric acid, α-KG)和Fe2+的结合位点,使TET蛋白具有双加氧酶活性[11]。除了共有结构,TET1和TET3还具有一个N端的CXXC锌指结构域,可与特定的DNA序列结合(图 1)。TET1最早是在研究有t(10; 11)(q22; q23)异位的急性髓细胞性白血病(acute myeloid leukemia, AML)时被发现的[12]。2009年,Tahiliani等[8]发现TET1具有催化5hmC羧基化的酶活性,并且证实TET1与5hmC的产生和表达水平直接相关。在这之后,3种TET蛋白都被证实具有将5mC氧化为5hmC的功能[13]。虽然3种TET蛋白具有相对保守的催化结构域,但它们在生物体中的作用基本不重复,并且表达具有显著的细胞/器官特异性,其中TET1主要在胚胎干细胞(embryonic stem cell, ESCs)中表达,TET2主要在造血系统中表达,TET3则在小脑、皮质和海马体等神经系统中广泛表达[14]。

图 1.

TET蛋白的结构域

Structure domain of TET protein

The carboxyl terminal core catalytic domain is highly conserved in all TET family members and consists of double-stranded β-helix domain and Cys-rich domain. The double-stranded β-helix domain contains binding sites of α-ketoglutaric acid and Fe2+. TET, ten eleven translocation protein.

图 1

3. 5hmC与TET蛋白在DNA去甲基化中的作用

5hmC最早是由Wyatt等[15]在大肠杆菌噬菌体核酸内发现的。2009年,Kriaucionis等[16]和Globisch等[17]发现5hmC在小鼠所有组织和细胞中均有不同程度的表达,并且在中枢神经系统内表达最高,提示了5hmC在表观遗传调控神经元功能中的作用。与此同时,另一项突破性的研究发现TET1蛋白可以将5mC氧化成5hmC,而5hmC的表达水平会随着TET1的敲除而下降[8]。除了催化5mC羟基化生成5hmC,TET蛋白还可以将5hmC进一步氧化成5fC和5caC[9]。通过调控这些碱基的分布与含量,TET蛋白直接或间接地参与了DNA去甲基化过程。DNA去甲基化包括“被动”和“主动”两种形式。“被动”的DNA去甲基化是指在细胞分裂和DNA复制的过程中,5mC不断稀释,从而无法维持原有的DNA甲基化模式,而TET蛋白介导的5hmC沉积则可以诱导“被动”DNA去甲基化,并逆转异常的DNA甲基化突变。“主动”的DNA去甲基化则是指在酶的诱导催化下,5mC和其他氧化碱基被切除,重新由未修饰的胞嘧啶替换的过程。胸腺嘧啶-DNA糖基化酶(thymine-DNA glycosylase, TDG)和碱基切除修复(base excision repair, BER)主要介导这一过程。TDG虽然不能识别5hmC,但它可以识别5hmC被TET氧化后的产物5fC和5caC并将其切除,然后再由BER将未修饰的胞嘧啶替换上去[18]。也就是说,TET蛋白及5hmC在DNA去甲基化过程中起着不可或缺的作用(图 2)。

图 2.

TET蛋白在被动和主动DNA去甲基化中的作用

Role of TET protein in passive and active DNA demethylation

TET protein oxidizes 5mC into 5hmc, 5fC and 5caC, of which 5fC and 5caC are directly removed by thymine-DNA glycosylase. Through base excision repair, the resulting base sites are replaced by unmethylated cytosine. TET, ten eleven translocation protein; 5mC, 5-methylcytosine; 5hmC, 5-hydroxymethylcytosine; 5fC, 5-formylcytosine; 5caC, 5-carboxylcytosine.

图 2

4. 5hmC与TET蛋白在维持干细胞多能性及胚胎发育中的作用

DNA甲基化在干细胞增殖分化过程中起着重要作用[19]。TET蛋白和5hmC可以调控DNA去甲基化过程,因此它们可能参与维持干细胞多能性和调控胚胎发育。一些研究表明,5hmC在自我更新的干细胞和多能干细胞内表达水平较高,而随着细胞分化其表达水平显著降低[17, 20]。对小鼠胚胎干细胞(mouse embryonic stem cells, mESCs)含5hmC的DNA进行的高通量测序结果显示,5hmC在外显子内和转录起始点附近高度聚集,提示了5hmC在调控转录激活中的作用[21]。另外,在mESCs和诱导多能干细胞(induced pluripotent stem cells, iPSC)内,不仅存在5hmC富集,TET1和TET2表达水平也相对较高。敲除TET1和TET2则会导致一些干细胞多能性相关基因的表达下调,而随着mESCs不断分化,TET蛋白表达水平下降,同时伴有胚胎干细胞特异性基因启动子区的甲基化水平升高和基因沉默[13, 22]。这些研究都表明,5hmC不仅是一个DNA去甲基化过程的中间产物,还可能作为稳定的表观遗传印记,参与维持干细胞多能性的过程。另外,有研究在敲除了全部三种TET蛋白的mESCs内观察到端粒姐妹染色体交换和端粒延长的现象,说明TET蛋白不仅可以通过使启动子区低甲基化来维持转录活跃基因的持续表达,还可以通过调节端粒稳态来调控干细胞的分化[23]。

5. 5hmC与TET蛋白在脂肪干细胞及组织工程中的应用

5.1. 脂肪干细胞在组织工程及再生医学中的应用

随着组织工程技术和再生医学的发展,使用干细胞进行组织器官的修复再生为整形外科的临床治疗提供了新的思路。干细胞主要包括三种:ESCs、iPSCs和成人干细胞,其中ESCs和iPSCs有着极强的自我再生能力和多能性,但这些细胞在技术层面较难调控,而且涉及伦理学问题,而成人干细胞即有免疫相容性,又没有伦理学担忧,从而得到了广泛研究。在所有种类的成人干细胞中,ADSCs因其广泛存在、容易被大量获取、且获取时对患者造成的伤害很小,而成为目前最有前景的干细胞群之一[4]。

ADSCs有着很强的增殖能力和多向分化能力[24-25],还可以分泌大量细胞因子和生长因子,对人体组织和器官的生长分化起到促进作用[26]。正是由于ADSCs具有这些优势和特性,越来越多的学者开始探索ADSCs在再生医学细胞/组织治疗中的应用。Yoshimura等[27]研发了一种细胞辅助脂肪移植术(cell-assisted lipotransfer, CAL),使用提纯过的含有自体ADSCs的基质血管成分(stromal vascular fraction, SVF)用于脂肪注射隆胸术,结果表明,应用CAL技术的患者术后2个月注射脂肪的萎缩量更少,患者满意率更高。基于ADSCs的组织工程技术在骨缺损再生修复中的应用也得到了广泛研究。有研究归纳了近年来学者们使用ADSCs治疗颅颌面骨缺损的病例报告和临床试验,并总结了这种新方法的优缺点[28]。ADSCs在伤口修复愈合过程中也起着重要作用[29-30]。将成纤维细胞及增生性瘢痕组织培养在含ADSCs的培养基上,可以显著减少胶原沉积和瘢痕形成[31]。综上所述,大量研究已经证明了ADSCs在再生医学和组织工程学中的重要作用,它将为临床医学各领域探究新的治疗方法提供广阔思路。

5.2. 5hmC与TET蛋白在脂肪干细胞增殖分化中的作用

相较于DNA去甲基化在ESCs中的广泛研究,人们对于该过程在成人干细胞多能性维持和细胞分化中的作用及分子机制仍所知甚少。近年来的一些研究指出,DNA去甲基化可能在ADSCs分化过程中也起着重要作用。使用DNA甲基化转移酶(DNA methyltransferase, DNMT)抑制剂5-氮杂胞苷(5-azaytidine, 5-AZA)诱导ADSCs,可以降低ADSCs内DNA甲基化的程度,显著增强多能性基因的表达,从而诱导ADSCs的肝细胞样分化[32]以及成肌分化[33]。另有研究表明,在ADSCs成骨分化的终末期发生着非常活跃的DNA去甲基化[34],且5-AZA可以增强ADSCs成骨分化的能力[35]。

TET蛋白和5hmC是DNA去甲基化过程中的关键调控因子。有研究表明,5mC含量减少和5hmC含量增加是ADSCs成骨分化过程中的关键事件,并且伴随着TET1表达的增加[36]。另外,5-AZA可以通过减少5mC、增加5hmC、诱导TET2和TET3基因表达,来降低DNA甲基化程度,减少氧化应激因子聚集,增强细胞增殖能力,进而逆转ADSCs的退行性变化[37],提升已老化ADSCs的成骨分化潜能[35]。有研究联合使用白藜芦醇(resveratrol, RES)和5-AZA,进一步证明了使用5-AZA/RES可以通过调控DNA去甲基化从而改善ADSCs功能失调,并且这种作用可能与线粒体动态变化及细胞自噬有关[38-39]。另外在脂肪形成过程中,TET1和TET2基因表达水平随前脂肪细胞成脂分化而逐渐升高,进而引起以5mC减少和5hmC增加为标志的DNA去甲基化[40]。TET蛋白还可以通过引起区域性去甲基化,促进脂肪特异性基因表达,从而介导脂肪细胞的分化[41-42]。这些研究提示了TET蛋白及5hmC在ADSCs增殖分化过程中的潜在作用,对于基于ADSCs的再生医学临床治疗有着重要意义,但其机制仍需进一步探究。

6. 研究意义及展望

自TET蛋白家族发现起,已经有大量研究证明它们在DNA去甲基化过程中起着关键作用。干细胞增殖及分化过程离不开表观遗传调控及DNA甲基化,目前已有少量研究提出TET基因表达及5hmC含量增加可能是ADSCs自我更新及多向分化过程中的重要事件[35-42],而ADSCs正是再生医学干细胞治疗领域最有应用前景的干细胞谱系之一。可以想见,对TET蛋白及5hmC在ADSCs中的作用进行研究,将完善干细胞治疗的理论基础,强有力推动再生医学的发展,但目前这一研究领域尚存在很多问题亟待解决,首先,比起围绕ADSCs进行的大量基础研究,现有的针对ADSCs临床应用的临床试验样本量都较小,涵盖的领域和疾病种类也较少,仍需大量的临床研究来证实ADSCs在疾病治疗及组织器官再生修复中的临床价值;其次,ADSCs的增殖分化能力与ADSCs的获取位置、宿主年龄及细胞传代数密切相关,然而人们对于调控这些现象的关键因素仍不清楚;再次,目前尚无研究证实TET蛋白与ADSCs增殖分化的直接关系,更不论其中可能存在的分子生物学机制,但即便存在着若干问题亟待解决,不可否认的是ADSCs因其诸多优势,已经在再生医学领域受到了广泛关注,而TET蛋白家族作为调控DNA表观遗传调控的关键因子,其在ADSCs中的潜在作用机制将为人们理解ADSCs的增殖分化及干细胞疗法的临床应用提供全新的思路。在未来,结合生物打印技术,ADSCs可能应用于组织器官再生、整形外科重建等更广阔的领域。

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