Table 2.
Piper betle against Gram-negative bacteria.
| Extract/Preparation (Unit for Activities) | Method | Bacteria Species | Activities | Recalculated (%) | MBC/MIC | Inhibition Zone (mm) | Reference | ||
| MIC | MBC | MIC | MBC | ||||||
| Ethanol | Agar well diffusion | Pseudomenas aeruginosa | - | - | - | - | - | 6.7–7.2 | [11] |
| Escherichia coli | - | - | - | - | - | 8.9–11.0 | |||
| Water | Agar well diffusion | Pseudomenas aerugiaounosa | - | - | - | - | - | 7.2 | [11] |
| Escherichia coli | - | - | - | - | - | 8.5 | |||
| Ethanol ( µg/mL) | Disk diffusion | Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 | 625 | 625 | 0.0625 | 0.0625 | 1 * | 16 | [27] |
| Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC BAA-1705 | 1250 | 1250 | 0.125 | 0.125 | 1 * | 17 | |||
| Pseudomenas aeruginosa ATCC 27853 | 625 | 625 | 0.0625 | 0.0625 | 1 * | 17 | |||
| MβL, Pseudomenas aeruginosa (CI) | 312 | 312 | 0.0312 | 0.0312 | 1 * | 17 | |||
| MβL, Acinetobacter baumannii (CI) | 625 | 625 | 0.0625 | 0.0625 | 1 * | 23 | |||
| ESβL, Escherichia coli (CI) | 312 | 625 | 0.0312 | 0.0625 | 2 * | 20 | |||
| ESβL, Klebsiella pneumoniae (CI) | 625 | 625 | 0.0625 | 0.0625 | 1 * | 20 | |||
| CRE, Klebsiella pneumoniae (CI) | 312 | 625 | 0.0312 | 0.0625 | 2 * | 21 | |||
| Ethyl acetate (µg/µL) | Micro dilution | Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 | 4.00 | - | 0.4 | - | - | - | [12] |
| Pseudomenas aeruginosa ATCC 27853 | 4.00 | - | 0.4 | - | - | - | |||
| Acetone (µg/µL) | Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 | 4.00 | - | 0.4 | - | - | - | [12] | |
| Pseudomenas aeruginosa ATCC 25922 | 4.00 | - | 0.4 | - | - | - | |||
| Ethanol (µg/mL) | Disc dilution & Broth microdilution | Escherichia coli ESβL(+) (CI) | 312 | 312 | 0.0312 | 0.0312 | 1 * | 20 | [29] |
| Klebsiella pneumoniae ESβL(+) (CI) | 625 | 625 | 0.0625 | 0.0625 | 1 * | 20 | |||
| Klebsiella pneumoniae CRE(+) 1 (CI) | 312 | 312 | 0.0312 | 0.0312 | 1 * | 21 | |||
| Klebsiella pneumoniae CRE(+) 2 (CI) | 312 | 312 | 0.0312 | 0.0312 | 1 * | 24 | |||
| Klebsiella pneumoniae CRE(+) 3 (CI) | 625 | 625 | 0.0625 | 0.0625 | 1 * | 23 | |||
| Klebsiella pneumoniae CRE(+) 4 (CI) | 312 | 312 | 0.0312 | 0.0312 | 1 * | 23 | |||
| Serratia marcescens CRE(+) (CI) | 312 | 312 | 0.0312 | 0.0312 | 1 * | 20 | |||
| Pseudomonas aeruginosa MβL(+) 1 (CI) | 312 | 312 | 0.0312 | 0.0312 | 1 * | 17 | |||
| Pseudomonas aeruginosa MβL(+) 2 (CI) | 312 | 312 | 0.0312 | 0.0312 | 1 * | 19 | |||
| Pseudomonas aeruginosa MβL(+) 3 (CI) | 156 | 156 | 0.0156 | 0.0156 | 1* | 28 | |||
| Acinetobacter baumannii MβL(+) 1 (CI) | 625 | 625 | 0.0625 | 0.0625 | 2 * | 23 | |||
| Acinetobacter baumannii MβL(+) 2 (CI) | 156 | 312 | 0.0156 | 0.0312 | 2 * | 24 | |||
| Acinetobacter baumannii MβL(+) 3 (CI) | 312 | 312 | 0.0312 | 0.0312 | 1 * | 24 | |||
| Acinetobacter baumannii MβL(+) 4 (CI) | 312 | 312 | 0.0312 | 0.0312 | 1 * | 23 | |||
| Acinetobacter baumannii MβL(+) 5 (CI) | 625 | 625 | 0.0625 | 0.0625 | 1 * | 26 | |||
| Methanol (µg/mL) | Disc dilution & Broth microdilution | Escherichia coli ESBL(+) (CI) | 312 | 312 | 0.0312 | 0.0312 | 1 * | 19 | [29] |
| Klebsiella pneumoniae ESβL(+) (CI) | 625 | 625 | 0.0625 | 0.0625 | 1 * | 19 | |||
| Klebsiella pneumoniae CRE(+) 1 (CI) | 625 | 625 | 0.0625 | 0.0625 | 1 * | 21 | |||
| Klebsiella pneumoniae CRE(+) 2 (CI) | 312 | 312 | 0.0312 | 0.0312 | 1 * | 23 | |||
| Klebsiella pneumoniae CRE(+) 3 (CI) | 625 | 625 | 0.0625 | 0.0625 | 1 * | 22 | |||
| Klebsiella pneumoniae CRE(+) 4 (CI) | 312 | 312 | 0.0312 | 0.0312 | 1 * | 22 | |||
| Serratia marcescens CRE(+) (CI) | 312 | 312 | 0.0312 | 0.0312 | 1 * | 19 | |||
| Pseudomonas aeruginosa MβL(+) 1 (CI) | 625 | 625 | 0.0625 | 0.0625 | 1 * | 15 | |||
| Pseudomonas aeruginosa MβL(+) 2 (CI) | 625 | 625 | 0.0625 | 0.0625 | 1 * | 18 | |||
| Pseudomonas aeruginosa MβL(+) 3 (CI) | 156 | 156 | 0.0156 | 0.0156 | 1 * | 27 | |||
| Acinetobacter baumannii MβL(+) 1 (CI) | 625 | 625 | 0.0625 | 0.0625 | 1 * | 22 | |||
| Acinetobacter baumannii MβL(+) 2 (CI) | 625 | 1250 | 0.0625 | 0.125 | 2 * | 24 | |||
| Acinetobacter baumannii MβL(+) 3 (CI) | 625 | 625 | 0.0625 | 0.0625 | 1 * | 23 | |||
| Acinetobacter baumannii MβL(+) 4 (CI) | 312 | 312 | 0.0312 | 0.0312 | 1 * | 22 | |||
| Acinetobacter baumannii MβL(+) 5 (CI) | 625 | 625 | 0.0625 | 0.0625 | 1 * | 25 | |||
| SC-CO2 15MPa (µg/mL) | Disc dilution & Broth microdilution | Escherichia coli ESβL(+) (CI) | 625 | 1250 | 0.0625 | 0.125 | 2 * | 15 | [29] |
| Klebsiella pneumoniae ESβL(+) (CI) | 1250 | 1250 | 0.125 | 0.125 | 1 * | 15 | |||
| Klebsiella pneumoniae CRE(+) 1 (CI) | 625 | 625 | 0.0625 | 0.0625 | 1 * | 15 | |||
| Klebsiella pneumoniae CRE(+) 2 (CI) | 625 | 1250 | 0.0625 | 0.125 | 2 * | 20 | |||
| Klebsiella pneumoniae CRE(+) 3 (CI) | 625 | 1250 | 0.0625 | 0.125 | 2 * | 16 | |||
| Klebsiella pneumoniae CRE(+) 4 (CI) | 625 | 625 | 0.0625 | 0.0625 | 1 * | 16 | |||
| Serratia marcescens CRE(+) (CI) | 312 | 312 | 0.0312 | 0.0312 | 1 * | 18 | |||
| Pseudomonas aeruginosa MβL(+) 1 (CI) | 1250 | 1250 | 0.125 | 0.125 | 1 * | 11 | |||
| Pseudomonas aeruginosa MβL(+) 2 (CI) | 1250 | 1250 | 0.125 | 0.125 | 1 * | 14 | |||
| Pseudomonas aeruginosa MβL(+) 3 (CI) | 625 | 625 | 0.0625 | 0.0625 | 1 * | 12 | |||
| Acinetobacter baumannii MβL(+) 1 (CI) | 625 | 625 | 0.0625 | 0.0625 | 1 * | 20 | |||
| Acinetobacter baumannii MβL(+) 2 (CI) | 625 | 1250 | 0.0625 | 0.125 | 2 * | 20 | |||
| Acinetobacter baumannii MβL(+) 3 (CI) | 625 | 625 | 0.0625 | 0.0625 | 1 * | 19 | |||
| Acinetobacter baumannii MβL(+) 4 (CI) | 625 | 625 | 0.0625 | 0.0625 | 1 * | 18 | |||
| Acinetobacter baumannii MβL(+) 5 (CI) | 625 | 625 | 0.0625 | 0.0625 | 1 * | 21 | |||
| SC-CO2 20MPa (µg/mL) | Disc dilution & Broth microdilution | Escherichia coli ESβL(+) (CI) | 625 | 625 | 0.0625 | 0.0625 | 1 * | 16 | [29] |
| Klebsiella pneumoniae ESβL(+) (CI) | 625 | 625 | 0.0625 | 0.0625 | 1 * | 16 | |||
| Klebsiella pneumoniae CRE(+) 1 (CI) | 312 | 312 | 0.0312 | 0.0312 | 1 * | 16 | |||
| Klebsiella pneumoniae CRE(+) 2 (CI) | 312 | 625 | 0.0312 | 0.0625 | 2 * | 20 | |||
| Klebsiella pneumoniae CRE(+) 3 (CI) | 625 | 625 | 0.0625 | 0.0625 | 2 * | 17 | |||
| Klebsiella pneumoniae CRE(+) 4 (CI) | 312 | 312 | 0.0312 | 0.0312 | 1 * | 17 | |||
| Serratia marcescens CRE(+) (CI) | 312 | 312 | 0.0312 | 0.0312 | 1 * | 18 | |||
| Pseudomonas aeruginosa MβL(+) 1 (CI) | 625 | 625 | 0.0625 | 0.0625 | 1 * | 11 | |||
| Pseudomonas aeruginosa MβL(+) 2 (CI) | 625 | 625 | 0.0625 | 0.0625 | 1 * | 15 | |||
| Pseudomonas aeruginosa MβL(+) 3 (CI) | 625 | 625 | 0.0625 | 0.0625 | 1 * | 14 | |||
| Acinetobacter baumannii MβL(+) 1 (CI) | 625 | 625 | 0.0625 | 0.0625 | 1 * | 22 | |||
| Acinetobacter baumannii MβL(+) 2 (CI) | 312 | 625 | 0.312 | 0.0625 | 2 * | 22 | |||
| Acinetobacter baumannii MβL(+) 3 (CI) | 625 | 625 | 0.0625 | 0.0625 | 1 * | 22 | |||
| Acinetobacter baumannii MβL(+) 4 (CI) | 312 | 312 | 0.312 | 0.312 | 1 * | 21 | |||
| Acinetobacter baumannii MβL(+) 5 (CI) | 625 | 625 | 0.0625 | 0.0625 | 1 * | 24 | |||
| Ethanol (mg/mL) | Agar well diffusion & Broth microdilution | Aggregatibacter actino-mycetemcomitans ATCC 33384 | 1.04 | 2.08 | 0.104 | 0.208 | 2 * | ≥20 | [17] |
| Fusobacterium nucleatum ATCC 25586 | 1.30 | 2.08 | 0.13 | 0.208 | 1.6 * | ≥20 | |||
| Ethyl acetate | Broth dilution | Vibrio harveyi | 1600 | - | 0.16 | - | - | - | [32] |
| Extract-Ag nanoparticles | Kirby-Bauer’s Disc diffusion | Pseudomenas aeruginosa ATCC 27853 | - | - | - | - | - | 21.95 ± 0.45 | [25] |
| Salmonella typhi ATCC 14028 | - | - | - | - | - | 29.55 ± 0.45 | |||
| Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 | - | - | - | - | - | 27.12 ± 0.38 | |||
| Extract-CaO nanoparticles | Agar well diffusion | Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 | - | - | - | - | - | 18 | [28] |
| Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853 | - | - | - | - | - | 13 | |||
| BLEO-nanoemulsion (µL/mL) | Microdilution plate | Escherichia coli MTCC 443 | 0.5–1 | 1–1.5 | 0.05–0.1 | 0.1–0.15 | 1–3 * | - | [26] |
| Klebsiella pneumoniae MTCC 432 | 1–1.25 | 2–2.5 | 0.1–0.125 | 0.2–0.25 | 1–2 * | - | |||
| Pseudomonas aeruginosa MTCC 424 | 0.5–0.75 | 1–1.5 µL/mL | 0.05–0.075 | 0.1–0.15 | 2 * | - | |||
| BLEO (mg/mL) | Micro-dilution broth & growth inhibitory assay | Acinetobacter baumannii (CI) | 8 | 8 | 0.8 | 0.8 | 1 * | - | [24] |
| Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.03 | 0.03 | 1 * | - | |||
| Escherichia coli (CI) | 2 | 2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 1 * | - | |||
| Klebsiella pneumoniae (CI) | 4 | 4 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 1 * | - | |||
| Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.05 | 0.05 | 1 * | - | |||
| Pseudomonas aeruginosa (CI) | 2 | 2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 1 * | - | |||
| Proteus vulgaris (CI) | 4 | 4 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 1 * | - | |||
| BLEO + Gentamicin (mg/mL) | Micro-dilution broth & growth inhibitory assay | Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 | 0.5-1 | - | 0.05–0.1 | - | - | - | [24] |
BLEO = betel leaves essential oil, ESβL = Extended spectrum β-lactamase, MRSA = Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, MβL = metallo-β-lactam, - = data not available, * = bactericidal