Table 3.
Piper betle against Gram-positive bacteria.
| Extract/Preparation/Isolate (Unit for Activities) |
Method | BACTERIA SPECIES | Activitites | Recalculated (%) | MBC/MIC | Inhibition Zone (mm) | Reference | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| MIC | MBC | MIC | MBC | ||||||
| Ethanol | Agar well diffusion | Bacillus subtilis | - | - | - | - | - | 13.2–15.8 | [11] |
| Staphylococcus aureus | - | - | - | - | - | 9.7–18.0 | |||
| Micrococcus luteus | - | - | - | - | - | 5.0–5.4 | |||
| Water | Agar well diffusion | Bacillus subtilis | - | - | - | - | - | 4.9–6.8 | [11] |
| Staphylococcus aureus | - | - | - | - | - | 5.4–12.3 | |||
| Micrococcus luteus | - | - | - | - | – | 3.5–4.2 | |||
| Ethanol (µg/mL) | Disk diffusion | Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29223 | 312 | 312 | 0.0312 | 0.0312 | 1 * | 30 | [27] |
| MRSA #1 (CI) | 156 | 312 | 0.0156 | 0.0312 | 2 * | 32 | |||
| MRSA #2 (CI) | 156 | 156 | 0.0156 | 0.0156 | 1 * | 34 | |||
| MRSA #3 (CI) | 156 | 156 | 0.0156 | 0.0156 | 1 * | 28 | |||
| MRSA #4 (CI) | 78 | 78 | 0.0078 | 0.0078 | 1 * | 34 | |||
| VRE | 19 | 19 | 0.0019 | 0.0019 | 1 * | 28 | |||
| Ethyl acetate (µg/µL) | Broth microdilution | Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923 | 0.50 | - | 0.0005 | - | - | - | [12] |
| Propionibacterium acnes ATCC 6919 | 2.00 | - | 0.002 | - | - | - | |||
| Staphylococcus epidermidis ATCC 12228 | 4.00 | - | 0.004 | - | - | - | |||
| Streptococcus pyogenes ATCC 19615 | 4.00 | - | 0.004 | - | - | - | |||
| Acetone (µg/µL) | Broth microdilution | Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923 | 0.25 | - | 0.00025 | - | - | - | [12] |
| Propionibacterium acnes ATCC 6919 | 2.00 | - | 0.002 | - | - | - | |||
| Staphylococcus epidermidis ATCC 12228 | 4.00 | - | 0.004 | - | - | - | |||
| Streptococcus pyogenes ATCC 19615 | 4.00 | - | 0.004 | - | - | - | |||
| Dichloromethane (µg/µL) | Broth microdilution | Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923 | 1.00 | - | 0.001 | - | - | - | [12] |
| Propionibacterium acnes ATCC 6919 | 4.00 | - | 0.004 | - | - | - | |||
| Staphylococcus epidermidis ATCC 12228 | 4.00 | - | 0.004 | - | - | - | |||
| Streptococcus pyogenes ATCC 19615 | 4.00 | - | 0.004 | - | - | - | |||
| Ethanol (µg/mL) | Disk diffusion | MRSA 1–7 | 78–156 | 78–312 | 0.0078–0.0156 | 0.0078–0.0312 | 1–2 * | 28–3833 | [29] |
| VRE 1–3 | 19–156 | 19–156 | 0.0019–0.0156 | 0.0019–0.0156 | 1 * | 25–3228 | |||
| Methanol (µg/mL) | Disk diffusion | MRSA 1–7 | 78–312 | 78–312 | 0.0078–0.0312 | 0.0078–0.0312 | 1–2 * | 28–3432 | [29] |
| VRE 1–3 | 19–156 µg/mL19µg/mL | 19–156 µg/mL19µg/mL | 0.0019–0.0156 | 0.0019–0.0156 | 1 * | 25–3226 | |||
| SC-CO2 15MPa (µg/mL) | Disk diffusion | MRSA 1–7 | 312–625 | 312–1250 | 0.0312–0.0625 | 0.0312–0.125 | 1 * | 21–3025 | [29] |
| VRE 1–3 | 19–156 | 19–156 | 0.0019–0.0156 | 0.0019–0.0156 | 1 * | 15–2820 | |||
| SC-CO2 20MPa (µg/mL) | Disk diffusion | MRSA 1–7 | 156–625 | 156–625 | 0.0156–0.0625 | 0.0156–0.0625 | 1 * | 22–3325 | [29] |
| VRE 1–3 | 19–156 | 19–156 | 0.0019–0.0156 | 0.0019–0.0156 | 1 * | 15–3124 | |||
| Ethanol (mg/mL) | Agar well diffusion & Broth microdilution | Enterobacter faecalis ATCC 19433 | 5.21 | 8.33 | 0.521 | 0.833 | 1.6 * | 10–20 | [17] |
| Lactobacillus fermentum ATCC 14931 | 4.17 | 8.33 | 0.417 | 0.833 | 2 * | 10–20 | |||
| Lactobacillus salivarius ATCC 11741 | 4.17 | 8.33 | 0.417 | 0.833 | 2 * | 10–20 | |||
| Streptococcus sobrinus ATCC 33478 | 1.56 | 3.17 | 0.156 | 0.317 | 2 * | ≥20 | |||
| Streptococcus mutans ATCC 25175 | 1.56 | 3.17 | 0.156 | 0.317 | 2 * | ≥20 | |||
| Hexane (µg/mL) | Disk diffusion | Streptococcus gordonii DMST 38731 | 1.00 | 2.00 | 0.0001 | 0.0002 | 2 * | 8.00 ± 0.00 | [30] |
| Streptococcus mutans DMST 18777 | 2.00 | 2.00 | 0.0002 | 0.0002 | 1 * | - | |||
| Ethyl acetate (µg/mL) | Streptococcus gordonii DMST 38731 | 0.50 | 2.00 | 0.00005 | 0.0002 | 4 ** | 12.50 ± 0.70 | [30] | |
| Streptococcus mutans DMST 18777 | 1.00 | 2.00 | 0.0001 | 0.0002 | 2 * | 11.00 ± 0.00 | |||
| Ethanol | Agar well diffusion | Staphylococcus aureus (CI) | - | - | - | - | - | 2..500–20.375 | [37] |
| Extract-Ag nanoparticles | Kirby-Bauer’s Disc diffusion | Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923 | - | - | - | - | - | 32.78 ± 0.64 | [25] |
| Extract-CaO nanoparticles | Agar well diffusion | Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923 | - | - | - | - | - | 13 | [28] |
| Streptococcus mutans MTCC 890 | - | - | - | - | - | 12 | |||
| BLEO-nanoemulsion (µL/mL) | Microdilution plate | Staphylococcus aureus MTCC 1144 | 0.5–0.75 | 1–1.5 | 0.05–0.075 | 0.1–0.15 | 2 * | [26] | |
| Bacillus cereus MTCC 1272 | 0.5–0.75 | 0.75–1.5 | 0.05–0.075 | 0.1–0.15 | 2 * | - | |||
| BLEO (mg/mL) | Micro-dilution broth & growth inhibitory assay | Escherichia faecalis (CI) | 4 | 4 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 1 * | [24] | |
| Propionibacterium acnes ATCC 6919 | 1 | 1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 1 * | - | |||
| Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.05 | 0.05 | 1 * | - | |||
| Staphylococcus epidermidis ATCC 12228 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.05 | 0.05 | 1 * | - | |||
| Streptococcus peroris (CI) | 2 | 2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 1 * | - | |||
| MRSA (CI) | 8 | 8 | 0.8 | 0.8 | 1 * | - | |||
| BLEO+Gentamicin (mg/mL) | Micro-dilution broth & growth inhibitory assay | Staphylococcus epidermidis ATCC 12228 | 1-2 | - | 0.1–0.2 | - | - | [24] | |
| Allylpyrocatechols I (µg/mL) | Kirby–Bauer disk diffusion | Streptococcus sanguinis ATCC 10566 | 39.1 | 78.1 | 0.00391 | 0.00781 | 2 * | 11.85–25.15 | [15] |
| 4-allylpyrocatechol (µg/mL) | Broth microdilution | Streptococcus intermedius DMST 42700 | 200 | 500 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 2.5 * | - | [35] |
| Streptococcus mutans DMST 41283 | 200 | 500 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 2.5 * | - | |||
BLEO = betel leaves essential oil, CI = Clinical isolate, MRSA = Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, VRE = vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus, - = data not available, * = bactericidal, ** = bacteriostatic.