Diabetic Neuropathies: Features and Mechanisms

Douglas W Zochodne

doi:10.1111/j.1750-3639.1999.tb00233.x

. 2006 Apr 5;9(2):369–391. doi: 10.1111/j.1750-3639.1999.tb00233.x

Diabetic Neuropathies: Features and Mechanisms

Douglas W Zochodne ^1,^✉

PMCID: PMC8098200 PMID: 10219752

Abstract

Diabetic neuropathies include both focal neuropathies and diffuse poly neuropathy. Polyneuropathy, the most common of the diabetic neuropathies excluding focal entrapment, has not yet been explained by a single disease mechanism despite intensive investigation. A number of abnormalities appear to cascade into a ‘vicious cycle’ of progressive microvascular disease associated with motor, sensory and autonomie fiber loss. These abnormalities include excessive polyol (sugar alcohol) flux through the aldose reductase pathway, functional and structural alterations of nerve microvessels, nerve and ganglia hypoxia, oxidative stress, nonspecific glycosylation of axon and microvessel proteins, and impairment in the elaboration of trophic factors critical for peripheral nerves and their ganglia. While an initiating role for nerve ischemia in the development of poly neuropathy has been proposed, the evidence for it can be questioned. The role of sensory and autonomie ganglia in the development of poly neuropathy has had relatively less attention despite the possibility that they may be vulnerable to a variety of insults, particularly neurotrophin deficiency. Superimposed on the deficits of polyneuropathy is the failure of diabetic nerves to regenerate as effectively as nondiabetics. Polyneuropathy has not yet yielded to specific forms of treatment but a variety of new trials addressing plausible hypotheses have been initiated.

This review will summarize some of the clinical, pathological and experimental work applied toward understanding human diabetic neuropathy and will emphasize ideas on pathogenesis.

Full Text

The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (306.9 KB).

References

1. Ahlgren SC, Levine JD. (1994) Protein kinase C inhibitors decrease hyperalgesia and C‐fiber hyperexcitability in the streptozotocin‐diabetic rat. J Neurophysiol 72(2):684–692. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
2. Aiello LP, Northrup JM, Keyt BA, Takagi H, Iwamoto MA. (1995) Hypoxic regulation of vascular endothelial growth factor in retinal cells. Arch Ophthalmol 113(12):1538–1544. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
3. Aldskogius H, Northrup JM, Keyt BA, et al. (1992) Axotomy‐induced changes in primary sensory neurons. In: Sensory Neurons. Diversity development and plasticity. Scott SA., (Eds.) pp. 363–383, Oxford University Press. Oxford . [Google Scholar]
4. Apfel SC, Arezzo JC, Brownlee M, Federoff H, Kessler JA. (1994) Nerve growth factor administration protects against experimental diabetic sensory neuropathy. Brain Res 634(1):7–12. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
5. Arvidson B. (1979) Distribution of protein tracers in peripheral ganglia. Acta Univ Ups 344:1–72. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
6. Asbury AK, Aldredge H, Hershberg R, Fisher CM. (1970) Oculomotor palsy in diabetes mellitus: a clinico‐patholog‐ical study. Brain 93(3):555–566. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
7. Bargen JA, Bollman JL, Depler EJ. (1936) The “diarrhea of diabetes” and steatorrhea of pancreatic insufficiency. Proc Staff Meet Mayo Clin 11:737–742. [Google Scholar]
8. Barohn RJ, Sahenk Z, Warmolts JR, Mendell JR. (1991) The Bruns‐Garland syndrome (diabetic amyotrophy). Revisited 100 years later. Arch Neurol 48(11):1130–1135. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
9. Bianchi R, Marelli C, Marini P, Fabris M, Triban C, Fiori MG. (1990) Diabetic neuropathy in db/db mice develops independently of changes in ATPase and aldose reductase. A biochemical and immunohistochemical study. Diabetologia 33(3):131–136. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
10. Bird SJ, Brown MJ. (1996) The clinical spectrum of diabetic neuropathy. Semin Neurol 16(2): 115–122. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
11. Bisby MA. (1980) Axonal transport of labeled protein and regeneration rate in nerves of streptozocin‐diabetic rats. Exp Neurol 69(1):74–84. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
12. Bisby MA. (1988) Dependence of GAP43 (B50, F1) transport on axonal regeneration in rat dorsal root ganglion neurons. Brain Res 458(1):157–161. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
13. Bohlen HG, Hankins KD. (1982) Early arteriolar and capillary changes in streptozotocin‐induced diabetic rats and intraperitoneal hyperglycaemic rats. Diabetologia 22(5):344–348. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
14. Bonni A, Greenberg ME. (1997) Neurotrophin regulation of gene expression. Can J Neurol Sci 24(4):272–283. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
15. Borghini I, Ania‐Lahuerta A, Regazzi R, Ferrari G, Gjinovci A, Wollheim CB, Pralong WF. (1994) Alpha, beta I, beta II, delta, and epsilon protein kinase C isoforms and compound activity in the sciatic nerve of normal and diabetic rats. J Neurochem 62(2):686–696. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
16. Bradley WE. (1980) Diagnosis of urinary bladder dysfunction in diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med 92(2 Pt 2):323–326. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
17. Bradley WE, Lin JT (1987) Assessment of diabetic sexual dysfunction and cystopathy. In: Diabetic neuropathy. Dyck PJ, Thomas PK, Asbury AK, and et al. (Eds.). pp. 146–154, WB. Saunders. Philadelphia . [Google Scholar]
18. Brett FM, Kalichman MW, Calcutt NA, Mizisin AP (1996) Effects of seven days of galactose feeding and aldose reductase inhibition on mast cells and vessel morphome‐try in rat sciatic nerve. J Neurol Sci 141 (1–2):6–12. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
19. Brewster WJ, Fernyhough P, Diemel LT, Mohiuddin L, Tomlinson DR. (1994) Diabetic neuropathy, nerve growth factor and other neurotrophic factors. Trends Neurosci 17(8):321–325. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
20. Brewster WJ, Fernyhough P, Diemel LT, Mohiuddin L, Tomlinson DR. (1995) Changes in nerve growth factor and preprotachykinin messenger RNA levels in the iris and trigeminal ganglion in diabetic rats; effects of treatment with insulin or nerve growth factor. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 29(1): 131–139. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
21. Britland ST, Young RJ, Sharma AK, Clarke BF. (1992) Acute and remitting painful diabetic polyneuropathy: a comparison of peripheral nerve fibre pathology. Pain 48:361–370. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
22. Brown MJ, Asbury AK. (1984) Diabetic neuropathy. Ann Neurol 15(1):2–12. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
23. Brownlee M, Cerami A, Vlassara H. (1988) Advanced glycosylation end products in tissue and the biochemical basis of diabetic complications. N Engl J Med 318(20):1315–1321. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
24. Brownlee M, Vlassara H, Kooney A, Ulrich P, Cerami A. (1986) Aminoguanidine prevents diabetes‐induced arterial wall protein cross‐linking. Science 232(4758):1629–1632. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
25. Bucala R, Tracey KJ, Cerami A. (1991) Advanced glyco‐sylation products quench nitric oxide and mediate defective endothelium‐dependent vasodilation in experimental diabetes. J Clin Invest 87(2):432–438. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
26. Calcutt NA, Muir D, Powell HC, Mizisin AP (1992) Reduced ciliary neuronotrophic factor‐like activity in nerves from diabetic or galactose‐fed rats. Brain Res 575(2):320–324. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
27. Calver A, Collier J, Vallance P. (1992) Inhibition and stimulation of nitric oxide synthesis in the human forearm arterial bed of patients with insulin‐dependent diabetes. J Clin Invest 90(6):2548–2554. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
28. Cameron NE, Cotter MA. (1993) Potential therapeutic approaches to the treatment or prevention of diabetic neuropathy: evidence from experimental studies. Diabet Med 10(7):593–605. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
29. Cameron NE, Cotter MA, Dines K, Love A. (1992) Effects of aminoguanidine on peripheral nerve function and poly‐ol pathway metabolites in streptozotocin‐diabetic rats. Diabetologia 35(10):946–950. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
30. Cameron NE, Cotter MA, Dines KC, Maxfield EK. (1993) Pharmacological manipulation of vascular endothelium function in non‐diabetic and streptozotocin‐diabetic rats: effects on nerve conduction, hypoxic resistance and endoneurial capillarization. Diabetologia 36(6):516–522. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
31. Cameron NE, Cotter MA, Ferguson K, Robertson S, Radcliffe MA. (1991) Effects of chronic alpha‐adrenergic receptor blockade on peripheral nerve conduction, hypoxic resistance, polyols, Na(+)‐K(+)‐ATPase activity, and vascular supply in STZ‐D rats. Diabetes 40(12):1652–1658. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
32. Cameron NE, Cotter MA, Low PA. (1991) Nerve blood flow in early experimental diabetes in rats: relation to conduction deficits. Am J Physiol 261(1 Pt 1):E1–8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
33. Cherian PV, Kamijo M, Angelides KJ, Sima AA. (1996) Nodal Na(+)‐channel displacement is associated with nerve‐conduction slowing in the chronically diabetic BB/W rat: prevention by aldose reductase inhibition. J Diabetes Complications 10(4): 192–200. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
34. Conti G, Stoll G, Scarpini E, Baron PL, Bianchi R, Livraghi S, Scarlato G. (1997) p75 neurotrophin receptor induction and macrophage infiltration in peripheral nerve during experimental diabetic neuropathy: possible relevance on regeneration. Exp Neurol 146(1):206–211. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
35. Cullum NA, Mahon J, Stringer K, McLean WG. (1991) Glycation of rat sciatic nerve tubulin in experimental diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia 34(6):387–389. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
36. Dahl‐Jorgensen K, Brinchmann‐Hansen O, Hanssen KF, Ganes T, Kierulf P, Smeland E, Sandvik L, Aagenaes O. (1985) Effect of near normoglycaemia for two years on progression of early diabetic retinopathy, nephropathy, and neuropathy: the Oslo study. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 290(6556):811–815. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
37. Dahlin LB, Meiri KF, McLean WG, Rydevik B, Sjostrand J. (1986) Effects of nerve compression on fast axonal transport in streptozotocin‐induced diabetes mellitus. An experimental study in the sciatic nerve of rats. Diabetologia 29(3):181–185. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
38. Dashwood MR, Thomas PK. (1997) Neurovascular [1251]‐ET‐1 binding sites on human peripheral nerve. Endothelium 5(2):119–123. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
39. Dewhurst M, Omawari N, Tomlinson DR. (1997) Aminoguanidine‐effects on endoneurial vasoactive nitric oxide and on motor nerve conduction velocity in control and streptozotocin‐diabetic rats. Br J Pharmacol 120(4):593–598. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
40. Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group . (1993) The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long‐term complications in insulin‐dependent diabetes mellitus. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. N Engl J Med 329(14):977–986. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
41. Diederich D, Skopec J, Diederich A, Dai FX. (1994) Endothelial dysfunction in mesenteric resistance arteries of diabetic rats: role of free radicals. Am J Physiol 266(3 Pt2):H1153–H1161. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
42. Dines KC, Mizisin AP, Jorge MC, Nunag KD, Kalichman MW. (1997) Effects of body and hindlimb temperature on laser Doppler blood flow and vascular conductance in rat sciatic nerve and skeletal muscle. J Neurol Sci 148(1):7–13. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
43. Durante W, Sen AK, Sunahara FA. (1988) Impairment of endothelium‐dependent relaxation in aortae from spontaneously diabetic rats. Br J Pharmacol 94(2):463–468. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
44. Dyck PJ. (1989) Hypoxic neuropathy: does hypoxia play a role in diabetic neuropathy? The 1988 Robert Wartenberg lecture. Neurology 39(1):111–118. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
45. Dyck PJ, Engelstad JK, Giannini C, Lais AC, Minnerath SR, Karnes JL. (1989) Resistance to axonal degeneration after nerve compression in experimental diabetes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 86(6):2103–2106. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
46. Dyck PJ, Giannini C. (1996) Pathologic alterations in the diabetic neuropathies of humans: a review. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 55(12): 1181–1193. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
47. Dyck PJ, Hansen S, Karnes J, O'Brien P, Yasuda H, Windebank A, Zimmerman B. (1985) Capillary number and percentage closed in human diabetic sural nerve. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 82(8):2513–2517. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
48. Dyck PJ, Karnes J, O'Brien PC. (1987) Detection thresholds of cutaneous sensation. In: Diabetic Neuropathy. Dyck PJ, Thomas PK, Asbury AK, Winegrad AL, and Porte D. (Eds.). 11. pp. 107–121, W.B. Saunders. Toronto . [Google Scholar]
49. Dyck PJ, Karnes JL, O'Brien P, Okazaki H, Lais A, Engelstad J. (1986) The spatial distribution of fiber loss in diabetic polyneuropathy suggests ischemia. Ann Neurol 19(5):440–449. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
50. Dyck PJ, Lais A, Karnes JL, O'Brien P, Rizza R. (1986) Fiber loss is primary and multifocal in sural nerves in diabetic polyneuropathy. Ann Neurol 19(5):425–439. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
51. Dyck PJ, Lais AC, Giannini C, Engelstad JK. (1990) Structural alterations of nerve during cuff compression. Proc NatlAcad Sci USA 87(24):9828–9832. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
52. Dyck PJ, Sherman WR, Hallcher LM, Service FJ, O'Brien PC, Grina LA, Palumbo PJ, Swanson CJ. (1980) Human diabetic endoneurial sorbitol, fructose, and myo‐inositol related to sural nerve morphometry. Ann Neurol 8(6):590–596. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
53. Dyck PJ, Zimmerman IR, Johnson DM, Gillen D, Hokanson JL, Karnes JL, Gruener G, O'Brien PC. (1996) A standard test of heat‐pain responses using CASE IV. J Neurol Sci 136(1–2): 54–63. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
54. Ekstrom PA, Tomlinson DR. (1989) Impaired nerve regeneration in streptozotocin‐diabetic rats is improved by treatment with gangliosides. J Neurol Sci 93:231–237. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
55. Elliott TG, Cockcroft JR, Groop PH, Viberti GC, Ritter JM. (1993) Inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis in forearm vasculature of insulin‐dependent diabetic patients: blunted vasoconstriction in patients with microalbuminuria. Clin Sci (Colch) 85(6) :687–693. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
56. Ewing DJ. (1990) Which battery of cardiovascular autonomie function tests Diabetologia 33:180–181. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
57. Ewing DJ, Boland O, Neilson JM, Cho CG, Clarke BF. (1991) Autonomie neuropathy, QT interval lengthening, and unexpected deaths in male diabetic patients. Diabetologia 34(3): 182–185. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
58. Ewing DJ, Clarke BF. (1986) Diabetic autonomie neuropathy: present insights and future prospects. Diabetes Care 9(6):648–665. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
59. Ewing DJ, Martyn CN, Young RJ, Clarke BF. (1985) The value of cardiovascular autonomie function tests: 10 years experience in diabetes. Diabetes Care 8(5):491–498. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
60. Fagerberg SE. (1959) Diabetic neuropathy: a clinical and histological study on the significance of vascular affectins. [Abstract]. Acta Med Scand 164:(Supplement 345)1. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
61. Fahey TJ, 3d , Sadaty A, Jones WG, 2d , Barber A, Smoller B, Shires GT. (1991) Diabetes impairs the late inflammatory response to wound healing. J Surg Res 50(4):308–313. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
62. Feldman M, Schiller LR. (1983) Disorders of gastrointestinal motility associated with diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern med 98(3):378–384. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
63. Fernyhough P, Diemel LT, Brewster WJ, Tomlinson DR. (1994) Deficits in sciatic nerve neuropeptide content coincide with a reduction in target tissue nerve growth factor messenger RNA in streptozotocin‐diabetic rats: effects of insulin treatment. Neuroscience 62(2):337–344. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
64. Fernyhough P, Diemel LT, Brewster WJ, Tomlinson DR. (1995) Altered neurotrophin mRNA levels in peripheral nerve and skeletal muscle of experimentally diabetic rats. J Neurochem 64(3): 1231–1237. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
65. Fernyhough P, Diemel LT, Hardy J, Brewster WJ, Mohiuddin L, Tomlinson DR. (1995) Human recombinant nerve growth factor replaces deficient neurotrophic support in the diabetic rat. Eur J Neurosci 7(5)A 107–1110. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
66. Franklin GM, Kahn LB, Baxter J, Marshall JA, Hamman RF. (1990) Sensory neuropathy in non‐insulin‐dependent diabetes mellitus. The San Luis Valley Diabetes Study. Am J Epidemiol 131 (4):633–643. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
67. Funakoshi H, Frisen J, Barbany G, Timmusk T, Zachrisson O, Verge VMK, Persson H. (1993) Differential expression of mRNAs for neurotrophins and their receptors after axotomy of the sciatic nerve. J Cell Biol 123(2):455–465. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
68. Goodman JI. (1966) Diabetic anhidrosis. Am J Med 41(5):831–835. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
69. Greenbaum D, Richardson PC, Salmon MV, Urich H. (1964) Pathological observations on six cases of diabetic neuropathy. Brain 87(2):201–219. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
70. Greene DA, Arezzol J, Brown M, et al. (1996) Dose related effects of the aldose reductase inhibitor Zendrestat on nerve sorbitol levels, nerve conduction velocity and nerve fiber density in human diabetic neuropathy. [Abstract]. Diabetes 45:5A. [Google Scholar]
71. Greene DA, Lattimer S, Ulbrecht J, Carroll P. (1985) Glucose‐induced alterations in nerve metabolism: current perspective on the pathogenesis of diabetic neuropathy and future directions for research and therapy. Diabetes Care 8(3):290–299. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
72. Greene DA, Lattimer SA, Sima AA. (1987) Sorbitol, phosphoinositides, and sodium‐potassium‐ATPase in the pathogenesis of diabetic complications. N Engl J Med 316(10):599–606. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
73. Greene DA, Winegrad AI, Carpentier JL, Brown MJ, Fukuma M, Orci L. (1979) Rabbit sciatic nerve fascicle and ‘endoneurial’ preparations for in vitro studies of peripheral nerve glucose metabolism. J Neurochem 33(5):1007–1018. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
74. Gupta S, Sussman I, McArthur CS, Tornheim K, Cohen RA, Ruderman NB. (1992) Endothelium‐dependent inhibition of Na(+)‐K+ ATPase activity in rabbit aorta by hyper‐glycemia. Possible role of endothelium‐derived nitric oxide. J Clin Invest 90(3):727–732. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
75. Hellweg R, Raivich G, Hartung HD, Hock C, Kreutzberg GW (1994) Axonal transport of endogenous nerve growth factor (NGF) and NGF receptor in experimental diabetic neuropathy. Exp Neurol 130(1):24–30. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
76. Hellweg R, Wohrle M, Hartung HD, Stracke H, Hock C, Federlin K. (1991) Diabetes mellitus‐associated decrease in nerve growth factor levels is reversed by allogeneic pancreatic islet transplantation. Neurosci Lett 125(1):1–4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
77. Heumann R, Lindholm D, Bandtlow C, Meyer M, Radeke MJ, Misko TP, Shooter E, Thoenen H. (1987) Differential regulation of mRNA encoding nerve growth factor and its receptor in rat sciatic nerve during development, degeneration, and regeneration: role of macrophages. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 84(23):8735–8739. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
78. Hill MA, Meininger GA, Larkins RG. (1990) Alterations in microvascular reactivity in experimental diabetes mellitus: contribution of the endothelium.ln: Endothelial cell function in diabetic microangiopathy: Problmes in methodology and clinical aspects. Front Diabetes. Molinatti GM, Bar RS, Belfiore F, and Porta M. (Eds.). pp. 118–126, Basel . Karger. [Google Scholar]
79. Holman RR, Dornan TL, Mayon‐White V, Howard‐Williams J, Orde‐Peckar C, Jenkins L, Steemson J, Rolfe R, Smith B, Barbour D, et al. (1983) Prevention of deterioration of renal and sensory‐nerve function by more intensive management of insulin‐dependent diabetic patients. A two‐year randomised prospective study. Lancet 1(8318):204–208. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
80. Horowitz M, Fraser R. (1994) Disordered gastric motor function in diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia 37:543–551. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
81. Ido Y, Chang K, LeJeune W, Tilton RG, Monafo WW, Williamson JR. (1997) Diabetes impairs sciatic nerve hyperemia induced by surgical trauma: implications for diabetic neuropathy. Am J Physiol 273(1 Pt 1):E174–84. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
82. Ishii DN. (1993) Insulin and related neurotrophic factors in diabetic neuropathy. Diabet Med 10(Suppl. 2):14S–15S. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
83. Ishii DN. (1995) Implication of insulin‐like growth factors in the pathogenesis of diabetic neuropathy. Brain Res Brain Res Rev 20(1):47–67. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
84. Ishii H, Jirousek MR, Koya D, Takagi C, Xia P, Clermont A, Bursell SE, Kern TS, Ballas LM, Heath WF, et al. (1996) Amelioration of vascular dysfunctions in diabetic rats by an oral PKC beta inhibitor. Science 272(5262):728–731. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
85. Jaffey PB, Gelman BB. (1996) Increased vulnerability to demyelination in streptozotocin diabetic rats. J Comp Neurol 373(1):55–61. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
86. Jakobsen J, Sidenius P. (1980) Decreased axonal transport of structural proteins in streptozotocin diabetic rats. J Clin Invest 66(2):292–297. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
87. Johnson PC, Doll SC, Cromey DW (1986) Pathogenesis of diabetic neuropathy. Ann Neurol 19(5):450–457. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
88. Judzewitsch RG, Jaspan JB, Polonsky KS, Weinberg CR, Halter JB, Halar E, Pfeifer MA, Vukadinovic C, Bernstein L, Schneider M, et al. (1983) Aldose reductase inhibition improves nerve conduction velocity in diabetic patients. N EnglJ Med 308(3):119–125. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
89. Kadekaro M, Crane AM, Sokoloff L. (1985) Differential effects of electrical stimulation of sciatic nerve on metabolic activity in spinal cord and dorsal root ganglion in the rat. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 82(17):6010–6013. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
90. Kamijo M, Merry AC, Akdas G, Cherian PV, Sima AA. (1996) Nerve fiber regeneration following axotomy in the diabetic biobreeding Worcester rat: the effect of ARI treatment. J Diabetes Complications 10(4):183–191. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
91. Kaplan DR, Miller FD. (1997) Signal transduction by the neurotrophin receptors. Curr Opin Cell Biol 9(2):213–221. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
92. Kappelle AC, Biessels G, Bravenboer B, Van Buren T, Traber J, De Wildt DJ, Gispen WH. (1994) Beneficial effect of the Ca2+ antagonist, nimodipine, on existing diabetic neuropathy in the BB/Wor rat. Br J Pharmacol 111(3):887–893. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
93. Kappelle AC, Bravenboer B, Van Buren T, Traber J, Erkelens DW, Gispen WH. (1993) Amelioration by the Ca2+ antagonist, nimodipine of an existing neuropathy in the streptozotocin‐induced, diabetic rat. Br J Pharmacol 108(3):780–785. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
94. Kassander P. (1958) Asymptomatic gastric retention in diabetes (gastroparesis diabeticorum). Ann Intern Med 48:797–812. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
95. Keen H, Payan J, Allawi J, Walker J, Jamal GA, Weir AI, Henderson LM, Bissessar EA, Watkins PJ, Sampson M. (1993) Treatment of diabetic neuropathy with gammalinolenic acid. The gamma‐Linolenic Acid Multicenter Trial Group. Diabetes Care 16(1):8–15. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
96. Kennedy WR, Sakuta M, Sutherland D, Goetz FC. (1984) Quantitation of the sweating deficiency in diabetes mellitus. Ann Neurol 15(5):482–488. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
97. Kihara M, Low PA. (1995) Impaired vasoreactivity to nitric oxide in experimental diabetic neuropathy. Exp Neurol 0132(2): 180–185. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
98. Kihara M, Opfer‐Gehrking TL, Low PA. (1993) Comparison of directly stimulated with axon‐reflex‐medi‐ated sudomotor responses in human subjects and in patients with diabetes. Muscle Nerve 16(6):655–660. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
99. Kihara M, Schmelzer JD, Poduslo JF, Curran GL, Nickander KK, Low PA. (1991) Aminoguanidine effects on nerve blood flow, vascular permeability, electrophysiology, and oxygen free radicals. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 88(14):6107–6111. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
100. King RH, Llewelyn JG, Thomas PK, Gilbey SG, Watkins PJ. (1989) Diabetic neuropathy: abnormalities of Schwann cell and perineurial basal laminae. Implications for diabetic vasculopathy. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 15(4):339–355. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
101. Kirchain WR, Rendell MS. (1990) Aldose reductase inhibitors. Pharmacotherapy 10(5):326–336. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
102. Kowluru R, Bitensky MW, Kowluru A, Dembo M, Keaton PA, Buican T. (1989) Reversible sodium pump defect and swelling in the diabetic rat erythrocyte: effects on filter‐ability and implications for microangiopathy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 86(9):3327–3331. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
103. Krendel DA, Costigan DA, Hopkins LC. (1995) Successful treatment of neuropathies in patients with diabetes mellitus. Arch Neurol 52(11):1053–1061. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
104. Krolewski AS, Warram JH, Cupples A, Gorman CK, Szabo AJ, Christlieb AR. (1985) Hypertension, orthostat‐ic hypotension and the microvascular complications of diabetes. J Chronic Dis 38(4):319–326. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
105. Larkins RG, Dunlop ME, Johnson El. (1996) Norman MacAlister Gregg Lecture. The pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy. Aust N Z J Ophthalmol 24(2):97–104. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
106. Lieberman AR. (1971) The axon reaction: a review of the principal features of perikaryal responses to axon injury. Int Rev Neurobiol 14:49–124. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
107. Llewelyn JG, Gilbey SG, Thomas PK, King RH, Muddle JR, Watkins PJ. (1991) Sural nerve morphometry in diabetic autonomie and painful sensory neuropathy. A clini‐copathological study. Brain 114(Pt 2):867–892. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
108. Llewelyn JG, Thomas PK, Gilbey SG, Watkins PJ, Muddle JR. (1988) Pattern of myelinated fibre loss in the sural nerve in neuropathy related to type 1 (insulin‐dependent) diabetes. Diabetologia 31 (3):162–167. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
109. Longo FM, Powell HC, Lebeau J, Gerrero MR, Heckman H, Myers RR. (1986) Delayed nerve regeneration in streptozotocin diabetic rats. Muscle Nerve 9(5):385–393. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
110. Low PA. (1996) Diabetic autonomie neuropathy. Semin Neurol 16(2):143–151. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
111. Low PA, Nickander KK. (1991) Oxygen free radical effects in sciatic nerve in experimental diabetes. Diabetes 40(7):873–877. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
112. Low PA, Nickander KK, Tritschler HJ. (1997) The roles of oxidative stress and antioxidant treatment in experimental diabetic neuropathy. Diabetes 46(Suppl 2):S38–S42. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
113. Low PA, Schmelzer JD, Ward KK, Yao JK. (1986) Experimental chronic hypoxic neuropathy: relevance to diabetic neuropathy. Am J Physiol 250(1 Pt 1):E94–E99. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
114. Low PA, Tuck RR, Dyck PJ, Schmelzer JD, Yao JK. (1984) Prevention of some electrophysiologic and biochemical abnormalities with oxygen supplementation in experimental diabetic neuropathy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 81(21):6894–6898. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
115. Low PA, Walsh JC, Huang CY, McLeod JG. (1975) The sympathetic nervous system in diabetic neuropathy. A clinical and pathological study. Brain 98(3):341–356. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
116. Low PA, Ward K, Schmelzer JD, Brimijoin S. (1985) Ischemie conduction failure and energy metabolism in experimental diabetic neuropathy. Am J Physiol 248(4 Pt 1):E457–62. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
117. Low PA, Zimmerman BR, Dyck PJ. (1986) Comparison of distal sympathetic with vagal function in diabetic neuropathy. Muscle Nerve 9(7):592–596. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
118. Maeda K, Fernyhough P, Tomlinson DR. (1996) Regenerating sensory neurones of diabetic rats express reduced levels of mRNA for GAP‐43, gamma‐prepro‐tachykinin and the nerve growth factor receptors, trkA and p75NGFR. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 37(1–2):166–174. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
119. Malik RA. (1997) The pathology of human diabetic neuropathy. Diabetes 46(Suppl 2):S50–S53. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
120. Malik RA, Newrick PG, Sharma AK, Jennings A, Ah‐See AK, Mayhew TM, Jakubowski J, Boulton AJ, Ward JD. (1989) Microangiopathy in human diabetic neuropathy: relationship between capillary abnormalities and the severity of neuropathy. Diabetologia 32(2):92–102. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
121. Malik RA, Tesfaye S, Thompson SD, Veves A, Sharma AK, Boulton AJ, Ward JD. (1993) Endoneurial localisation of microvascular damage in human diabetic neuropathy. Diabetologia 36(5):454–459. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
122. Malik RA, Veves A, Masson EA, Sharma AK, Ah‐See AK, Schady W, Lye RH, Boulton AJ. (1992) Endoneurial capillary abnormalities in mild human diabetic neuropathy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 55(7):557–561. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
123. Maser RE, Steenkiste AR, Dorman JS, Nielsen VK, Bass EB, Manjoo Q, Drash AL, Becker DJ, Kuller LH, Greene DA. (1989) Epidemiological correlates of diabetic neuropathy. Report from Pittsburgh Epidemiology of Diabetes Complications Study. Diabetes 38(11):1456–1461. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
124. Masson EA, Church SE, Woodcock AA, Hanley SP, Boulton AJ. (1988) Is resistance to ischaemic conduction failure induced by hypoxia. Diabetologia 31(10):762–765. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
125. Matthews CC, Feldman EL. (1996) Insulin‐like growth factor I rescues SH‐SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells from hyperosmotic induced programmed cell death. J Cell Physiol 166(2):323–331. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
126. Mayer JH, Tomlinson DR. (1983) The influence of aldose reductase inhibition and nerve myo‐inositol on axonal transport and nerve conduction velocity in rats with experimental diabetes. J Physiol 340:25–28. [Google Scholar]
127. Mayhan WG, Faraci FM. (1993) Responses of cerebral arterioles in diabetic rats to activation of ATP‐sensitive potassium channels. Am J Physiol 265(1 Pt 2):H152–H157. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
128. McCulloch DK, Campbell IW, Wu FC, Prescott RJ, Clarke BF. (1980) The prevalence of diabetic impotence. Diabetologia 18(4):279–283. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
129. McLean WG. (1997) The role of axonal cytoskeleton in diabetic neuropathy. Neurochem Res 22(8):951–956. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
130. McLean WG, Pekiner C, Cullum NA, Casson IF. (1992) Posttranslational modifications of nerve cytoskeletal proteins in experimental diabetes. Mol Neurobiol 6(2–3):225–237. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
131. McNeely MJ, Boyko EJ, Ahroni JH, Stensel VL, Reiber GE, Smith DG, Pecoraro RF. (1995) The independent contributions of diabetic neuropathy and vasculopathy in foot ulceration. How great are the risks. Diabetes Care 18(2):216–219. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
132. Medori R, Autilio‐Gambetti L, Jenich H, Gambetti P. (1988) Changes in axon size and slow axonal transport are related in experimental diabetic neuropathy. Neurology 38(4):597–601. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
133. Medori R, Autilio‐Gambetti L, Monaco S, Gambetti P. (1985) Experimental diabetic neuropathy: impairment of slow transport with changes in axon cross‐sectional area. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 82(22):7716–7720. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
134. Medori R, Jenich H, Autilio‐Gambetti L, Gambetti P. (1988) Experimental diabetic neuropathy: similar changes of slow axonal transport and axonal size in different animal models. J Neurosci 8(5):1814–1821. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
135. Minchenko A, Bauer T, Salceda S, Caro J. (1994) Hypoxic stimulation of vascular endothelial growth factor expression in vitro and in vivo. Lab Invest 71(3):374–379. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
136. Mizisin AP, Calcutt NA. (1991) Dose‐dependent alterations in nerve polyols and (Na+, K+)‐ATPase activity in galactose intoxication. Metabolism 40(11):1207–1212. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
137. Mizisin AP, Calcutt NA, DiStefano PS, Acheson A, Longo FM. (1997) Aldose reductase inhibition increases CNTF‐like bioactivity and protein in sciatic nerves from galactose‐fed and normal rats. Diabetes 46(4):647–652. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
138. Mizisin AP, Li L, Calcutt NA. (1997) Sorbitol accumulation and transmembrane efflux in osmotically stressed JS1 schwannoma cells. Neurosci Lett 229(1):53–56. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
139. Mizisin AP, Powell HC. (1997) Schwann cell changes induced as early as one week after galactose intoxication. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 93(6):611–618. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
140. Mizisin AP, Powell HC, Myers RR. (1986) Edema and increased endoneurial sodium in galactose neuropathy. Reversal with an aldose reductase inhibitor. J Neurol Sci 74(1):35–43. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
141. Mohiuddin L, Fernyhough P, Tomlinson DR. (1995) Reduced levels of mRNA encoding endoskeletal and growth‐associated proteins in sensory ganglia in experimental diabetes. Diabetes 44(1):25–30. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
142. Molinatti GM, Bar RS, Belfiore F, et al. (1990) Endothelial cell function in diabetic microangiopathy: problems in methodology and clinical aspects. Molinatti GM, Bar RS, Belfiore F, and Porta M. (Eds.). Karger Press. NewYork . [Google Scholar]
143. Nagamatsu M, Nickander KK, Schmelzer JD, Raya A, Wittrock DA, Tritschler H, Low PA. (1995) Lipoic acid improves nerve blood flow, reduces oxidative stress, and improves distal nerve conduction in experimental diabetic neuropathy. Diabetes Care 18(8): 1160–1167. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
144. Nakamura J, Koh N, Sakakibara F, Hamada Y, Wakao T, Hara T, Mori K, Nakashima E, Naruse K, Hotta N. (1995) Polyol pathway, 2, 3‐diphosphoglycerate in erythrocytes and diabetic neuropathy in rats. Eur J Pharmacol 294(1):207–214. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
145. Newrick PG, Wilson AJ, Jakubowski J, Boulton AJ, Ward JD. (1986) Sural nerve oxygen tension in diabetes. Br Med J 293(6554): 1053–1054. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
146. Nukada H. (1986) Increased susceptibility to ischemie damage in streptozocin‐diabetic nerve. Diabetes 35(9): 1058–1061. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
147. Nukada H. (1992) Mild ischemia causes severe pathological changes in experimental diabetic nerve. Muscle Nerve 15(10):1116–1122. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
148. O'Brien IA, O'Hare JP, Lewin IG, Corrall RJ. (1986) The prevalence of autonomie neuropathy in insulin‐dependent diabetes mellitus: a controlled study based on heart rate variability. Q J Med 61(234):957–967. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
149. Parkhouse N, Le Quesne PM. (1988) Impaired neurogenic vascular response in patients with diabetes and neuropathic foot lesions. N Engl J Med 318(20):1306–1309. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
150. Parry GJ, Kohzu H. (1989) Studies of resistance to ischemic nerve conduction failure in normal and diabetic rats. J Neurol Sci 93(1):61–67. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
151. Pekiner C, Dent EW, Roberts RE, Meiri KF, McLean WG. (1996) Altered GAP‐43 immunoreactivity in regenerating sciatic nerve of diabetic rats. Diabetes 45(2): 199–204. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
152. Peripheral Nerve Society. (1995) Diabetic polyneuropathy in controlled clinical trials: Consensus Report of the Peripheral Nerve Society. Ann Neurol 38(3):478–482. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
153. Pfeifer MA, Cook D, Brodsky J, Tice D, Parrish D, Reenan A, Halter JB, Porte D, Jr. (1982) Quantitative evaluation of sympathetic and parasympathetic control of iris function. Diabetes Care 5(5):518–528. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
154. Pfeifer MA, Schumer MP, Gelber DA. (1997) Aldose reductase inhibitors: the end of an era or the need for different trial designs Diabetes 46(Suppl. 2):S82–S89. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
155. Pfeifer MA, Weinberg CR, Cook DL, Reenan A, Halter JB, Ensinck JW, Porte D, Jr. (1984) Autonomie neural dysfunction in recently diagnosed diabetic subjects. Diabetes Care 7(5):447–453. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
156. Pirart J. (1977) [Diabetes mellitus and its degenerative complications: a prospective study of 4,400 patients observed between 1947 and 1973 (author's transl)]. Diabete Metab 3(2):97–107. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
157. Powell HC, Garrett RS, Kador PF, Mizisin AP (1991) Fine‐structural localization of aldose reductase and ouabain‐sensitive, K(+)‐dependent p‐nitro‐phenylphosphatase in rat peripheral nerve. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 81(5):529–539. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
158. Pugliese G, Tilton RG, Speedy A, Chang K, Santarelli E, Province MA, Eades D, Sherman WR, Williamson JR. (1989) Effects of very mild versus overt diabetes on vascular haemodynamics and barrier function in rats. Diabetologia 32(12):845–857. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
159. Raff MC, Sangalang V, Asbury AK. (1968) Ischémie mononeuropathy multiplex associated with diabetes mellitus. Arch Neurol 18(5):487–499. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
160. Roberts RE, McLean WG. (1997) Protein kinase C isozyme expression in sciatic nerves and spinal cords of experimentally diabetic rats. Brain Res 754(1–2):147–156. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
161. Rundles RW (1945) Diabetic neuropathy. General review with report of 125 cases. [Abstract]. Medicine 24:111–60. [Google Scholar]
162. Russell JW, Parekh A, Singleton JR, et al. (1996) Insulin‐like growth factor‐1 (IGF‐1) modulates programmed cell death pathways in hyperglycemic neurons. [Abstract]. Ann Neurol 40:954. [Google Scholar]
163. Ryle C, Leow CK, Donaghy M. (1997) Nonenzymatic glycation of peripheral and central nervous system proteins in experimental diabetes mellitus. Muscle Nerve 20(5):577–584. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
164. Said G, Elgrably F, Lacroix C, Plante V, Talamon C, Adams D, Tager M, Slama G. (1997) Painful proximal diabetic neuropathy: inflammatory nerve lesions and spontaneous favorable outcome. Ann Neurol 41 (6):762–770. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
165. Said G, Goulon‐Goeau C, Lacroix C, Moulonguet A. (1994) Nerve biopsy findings in different patterns of proximal diabetic neuropathy. Ann Neurol 35(5):559–569. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
166. Sampson MJ, Wilson S, Karagiannis P, Edmonds M, Watkins PJ. (1990) Progression of diabetic autonomie neuropathy over a decade in insulin‐dependent diabetics. QJ Med 75(278):635–646. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
167. Sango K, Verdes JM, Hikawa N, Horie H, Tanaka S, Inoue S, Sotelo JR, Takenaka T. (1994) Nerve growth factor (NGF) restores depletions of calcitonin gene‐related peptide and substance P in sensory neurons from diabetic mice in vitro. J Neurol Sci 126(1):1–5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
168. Sasaki H, Schmelzer JD, Zollman PJ, Low PA. (1997) Neuropathology and blood flow of nerve, spinal roots and dorsal root ganglia in longstanding diabetic rats. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 93(2):118–128. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
169. Schmelzer JD, Zochodne DW, Low PA. (1989) Ischemic and reperfusion injury of rat peripheral nerve. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 86(5):1639–1642. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
170. Schmidt RE, Grabau GG, Yip HK. (1986) Retrograde axonal transport of [125l]nerve growth factor in ileal mesenteric nerves in vitro: effect of streptozotocin diabetes. Brain Res 378(2):325–336. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
171. Schmidt RE, Plurad SB. (1986) Ultrastructural and biochemical characterization of autonomie neuropathy in rats with chronic streptozotocin diabetes. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 45(5):525–544. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
172. Schmidt RE, Scharp DW. (1982) Axonal dystrophy in experimental diabetic autonomie neuropathy. Diabetes 31(9):761–770. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
173. Schmidt Y, Unger JW, Bartke I, Reiter R. (1995) Effect of nerve growth factor on peptide neurons in dorsal root ganglia after taxol or cisplatin treatment and in diabetic (db/db) mice. Exp Neurol 132(1):16–23. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
174. Schneider U, Jund R, Nees S, Grafe P. (1992) Differences in sensitivity to hyperglycemic hypoxia of isolated rat sensory and motor nerve fibers. Ann Neurol 31 (6):605–610. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
175. Schneider U, Niedermeier W, Grafe P. (1993) The paradox between resistance to hypoxia and liability to hypoxic damage in hyperglycemic peripheral nerves. Evidence for glycolysis involvement. Diabetes 42(7):981–987. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
176. Sharma AK, Thomas PK. (1974) Peripheral nerve structure and function in experimental diabetes. J Neurol Sci 23(1):1–15. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
177. Shiba T, Inoguchi T, Sportsman JR, Heath WF, Bursell S, King GL. (1993) Correlation of diacylglycerol level and protein kinase C activity in rat retina to retinal circulation. Am J Physiol 265(5 Pt 1):E783–93. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
178. Sidenius P, Jakobsen J. (1982) Reversibility and prevent‐ability of the decrease in slow axonal transport velocity in experimental diabetes. Diabetes 31 (8 Pt 1):689–693. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
179. Sima AA, Bril V, Nathaniel V, McEwen TA, Brown MB, Lattimer SA, Greene DA. (1988) Regeneration and repair of myelinated fibers in sural‐nerve biopsy specimens from patients with diabetic neuropathy treated with sorbinil. N Engl J Med 319(9):548–555. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
180. Sima AA, Prashar A, Nathaniel V, Bril V, Werb MR, Greene DA. (1993) Overt diabetic neuropathy: repair of axo‐glial dysjunction and axonal atrophy by aldose reductase inhibition and its correlation to improvement in nerve conduction velocity. Diabet Med 10(2):115–121. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
181. Sima AAF, Brismar T, Yagihashi S. (1987) Neuropathies encountered in the spontaneously diabetic BB wistar rat. In: Diabetic Neuropathy. Dyck PJ, Thomas PK, Asbury AK, Winegrad AI, and Porte D. (Eds.). W.B. Saunders. Toronto . [Google Scholar]
182. Simpson LO. (1988) Altered blood rheology in the pathogenesis of diabetic and other neuropathies. Muscle Nerve 11 (7):725–744. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
183. Singhal A, Cheng C, Sun H, Zochodne DW. (1997) Near nerve local insulin treatment prevents conduction abnormalities in experimental diabetes. Brain Res 763:209–214. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
184. Smith SA, Smith SE. (1983) Evidence for a neuropathic aetiology in the small pupil of diabetes mellitus. Br J Ophthalmol 67(2):89–93. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
185. Solders G, Thalme B, Aguirre‐Aquino M, Brandt L, Berg U, Persson A. (1997) Nerve conduction and autonomie nerve function in diabetic children. A 10‐year follow‐up study. Ada Paed/afr 86(4):361–366. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
186. Stevens EJ, Carrington AL, Tomlinson DR. (1994) Nerve ischaemia in diabetic rats: time‐course of development, effect of insulin treatment plus comparison of streptozotocin and BB models. Diabetologia 37(1):43–48. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
187. Stevens EJ, Tomlinson DR. (1995) Effects of endothelin receptor antagonism with bosentan on peripheral nerve function in experimental diabetes. Br J Pharmacol 115(2):373–379. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
188. Stevens MJ, Dananberg J, Feldman EL, Lattimer SA, Kamijo M, Thomas TP, Shindo H, Sima AA, Greene DA. (1994) The linked roles of nitric oxide, aldose reductase and, (Na+, K+)‐ATPase in the slowing of nerve conduction in the streptozotocin diabetic rat. J Clin Invest 94(2):853–859. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
189. Sugimura K, Dyck PJ. (1981) Sural nerve myelin thickness and axis cylinder caliber in human diabetes. Neurology 31 (9):1087–1091. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
190. Takahashi K, Ghatei MA, Lam HC, O'Halloran DJ, Bloom SR. (1990) Elevated plasma endothelin in patients with diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia 33(5):306–310. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
191. Tamura E, Parry GJ. (1994) Severe radicular pathology in rats with longstanding diabetes. J Neurol Sci 127(1):29–35. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
192. Taniuchi M, Clark HB, Schweitzer JB, Johnson EM, Jr. (1988) Expression of nerve growth factor receptors by Schwann cells of axotomized peripheral nerves: ultra‐structural location, suppression by axonal contact, and binding properties. J Neurosci 8(2):664–681. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
193. Tantuwaya VS, Bailey SB, Schmidt RE, Villadiego A, Tong JX, Rich KM. (1997) Peripheral nerve regeneration through silicone chambers in streptozocin‐induced diabetic rats. Brain Res 759(1):58–66. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
194. Taylor PD, Oon BB, Thomas CR, Poston L. (1994) Prevention by insulin treatment of endothelial dysfunction but not enhanced noradrenaline‐induced contractility in mesenteric resistance arteries from streptozotocin‐induced diabetic rats. Br J Pharmacol 111(1):35–41. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
195. Terada M, Yasuda H, Kikkawa R, Shigeta Y (1996) Tolrestat improves nerve regeneration after crush injury in streptozocin‐induced diabetic rats. Metabolism 45(10):1189–1195. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
196. Terenghi G, Mann D, Kopelman PG, Anand P. (1997) trkA and trkC expression is increased in human diabetic skin. Neurosci Lett 228(1):33–36. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
197. Tesfamariam B, Palacino JJ, Weisbrod RM, Cohen RA. (1993) Aldose reductase inhibition restores endothelial cell function in diabetic rabbit aorta. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 21(2):205–211. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
198. Tesfaye S, Harris N, Jakubowski JJ, Mody C, Wilson RM, Rennie IG, et al. (1998) Impaired blood flow and arteri‐ovenous shunting in human diabetic neuropathy: a novel technique of nerve photography and fluorescein angiography. Diabetologia 36:1266–1274. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
199. Tesfaye S, Malik R, Ward JD. (1994) Vascular factors in diabetic neuropathy. Diabetologia 37(9):847–854. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
200. Theriault M, Dort JC, Sutherland G, Zochodne DW. (1997) Local human sural nerve blood flow in diabetic and other polyneuropathies. Brain 120:1131–1138. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
201. Theriault M, Dort JC, Sutherland G, Zochodne DW. (1998) A prospective quantitative study of sensory deficits following whole sural nerve biopsies in diabetic and nondiabetic patients; surgical approach and the role of collateral sprouting. Neurology 50:480–484. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
202. Thomas PK, Lascelles RG. (1965) Schwann cell abnormalities in diabetic neuropathy. Lancet 1:1355–1356. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
203. Thomas PK, Lascelles RG. (1966) The pathology of diabetic neuropathy. Q J Med 35:489–509. [Google Scholar]
204. Thomas PK, Wright DW, Tzebelikos E. (1984) Amino acid uptake by dorsal root ganglia from streptozotocin‐diabetic rats. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 47(9):912–916. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
205. Tilton RG, Chang K, Hasan KS, Smith SR, Petrash JM, Misko TP, Moore WM, Currie MG, Corbett JA, McDaniel ML. (1993) Prevention of diabetic vascular dysfunction by guanidines. Inhibition of nitric oxide synthase versus advanced glycation end‐product formation. Diabetes 42(2):221–232. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
206. Timperley WR, Boulton AJ, Davies‐Jones GA, Jarratt JA, Ward JD. (1985) Small vessel disease in progressive diabetic neuropathy associated with good metabolic control. J Clin Pathol 38(9): 1030–1038. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
207. Tolins JP, Shultz PJ, Raij L, Brown DM, Mauer SM. (1993) Abnormal renal hemodynamic response to reduced renal perfusion pressure in diabetic rats: role of NO. Am J Physiol 265(6 Pt 2):F886–95. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
208. Tomlinson DR, Fernyhough P, Diemel LT (1997) Role of neurotrophins in diabetic neuropathy and treatment with nerve growth factors. Diabetes 46(Supp 2):S43–S49. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
209. Triban C, Guidolin D, Fabris M, Marini P, Schiavinato A, Dona M, Bortolami MC, Di Giamberardino L, Fiori MG. (1989) Ganglioside treatment and improved axonal regeneration capacity in experimental diabetic neuropathy. Diabetes 38(8):1012–1022. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
210. Trojaborg W (1996) The electrophysiologic profile of diabetic neuropathy. Semin Neurol 16(2):123–128. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
211. Tuck RR, Schmelzer JD, Low PA. (1984) Endoneurial blood flow and oxygen tension in the sciatic nerves of rats with experimental diabetic neuropathy. Brain 107(Pt 3): 935–950. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
212. Verge VM, Tetzlaff W, Bisby MA, Richardson PM. (1990) Influence of nerve growth factor on neurofilament gene expression in mature primary sensory neurons. J Neurosci 10(6):2018–2025. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
213. Verge VMK, Merlio J‐P, Grondin J, Ernfors P, Persson H, Riopelle RJ, Hokfelt T, Richardson PM. (1992) Colocalization of NGF binding sites, trk mRNA, and low‐affinity NGF receptor mRNA in primary sensory neurons: responses to injury and infusion of NGF. J Neurosci 12(10):4011–4022. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
214. Verge VMK, Richardson PM, Benoit R, Riopelle RJ. (1989) Histochemical characterization of sensory neurons with high‐affinity receptors for nerve growth factor. J Neurocytol 18:583–591. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
215. Verge VMK, Richardson PM, Wiesenfeld‐Hallin Z, Hokfelt T. (1995) Differential influence of nerve growth factor on neuropeptide expression in vivo: a novel role in peptide suppression in adult sensory neurons. J Neurosci 15(3):2081–2096. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
216. Vinik AI, Holland MT, Le Beau JM, Liuzzi FJ, Stansberry KB, Colen LB. (1992) Diabetic neuropathies. Diabetes Care 15(12): 1926–1975. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
217. Vlassara H, Bucala R, Striker L. (1994) Pathogenic effects of advanced glycosylation: biochemical, biologic, and clinical implications for diabetes and aging. Lab Invest 70(2):138–151. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
218. Walmsley D, Wales JK, Wiles PG. (1989) Reduced hyperaemia following skin trauma: evidence for an impaired microvascular response to injury in the diabetic foot. Diabetologia 32(10):736–739. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
219. Ward KK, Low PA, Schmelzer JD, Zochodne DW. (1989) Prostacyclin and noradrenaline in peripheral nerve of chronic experimental diabetes in rats. Brain 112(Pt 1):197–208. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
220. Watkins PJ. (1973) Facial sweating after food: a new sign of diabetic autonomie neuropathy. Br Med J 1(853):583–587. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
221. White RE, Carrier GO. (1988) Enhanced vascular alpha‐adrenergic neuroeffector system in diabetes: importance of calcium. Am J Physiol 255(5 Pt 2):H1036–H1042. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
222. Whitworth IH, Terenghi G, Green CJ, Brown RA, Stevens E, Tomlinson DR. (1995) Targeted delivery of nerve growth factor via fibronectin conduits assists nerve regeneration in control and diabetic rats. Eur J Neurosci 7(11):2220–2225. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
223. Wilbourn AJ. (1993) Diabetic neuropathies. In: Clinical electromyography Brown WF and Bolton CF. (Eds.). pp. 477–1503, Butterworth Heinemann. Toronto . [Google Scholar]
224. Williams B, Gallacher B, Patel H, Orme C. (1997) Glucose‐induced protein kinase C activation regulates vascular permeability factor mRNA expression and peptide production by human vascular smooth muscle cells in vitro. Diabetes 46(9)A 497–1503. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
225. Williams E, Timperley WR, Ward JD, Duckworth T. (1980) Electron microscopical studies of vessels in diabetic peripheral neuropathy. J Clin Pathol 33(5):462–470. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
226. Williamson JR, Chang K, Frangos M, Hasan KS, Ido Y, Kawamura T, Nyengaard JR, van den Enden M, Kilo C, Tilton RG. (1993) Hyperglycemic pseudohypoxia and diabetic complications. Diabetes 42(6):801–813. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
227. Williamson JR, Ostrow E, Eades D, Chang K, Allison W, Kilo C, Sherman WR. (1990) Glucose‐induced microvascular functional changes in nondiabetic rats are stereospecific and are prevented by an aldose reductase inhibitor. J Clin Invest 85(4): 1167–1172. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
228. Wu L, Mustoe TA. (1995) Effect of ischemia on growth factor enhancement of incisional wound healing. Surgery 117(5):570–576. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
229. Yagihashi S. (1995) Pathology and pathogenetic mechanisms of diabetic neuropathy. Diabetes Metab Rev 11(3):193–225. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
230. Yagihashi S, Kamijo M, Baba M, Yagihashi N, Nagai K. (1992) Effect of aminoguanidine on functional and structural abnormalities in peripheral nerve of STZ‐induced diabetic rats. Diabetes 41 (1):47–52. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
231. Yagihashi S, Kamijo M, Watanabe K. (1990) Reduced myelinated fiber size correlates with loss of axonal neurofilaments in peripheral nerve of chronically streptozotocin diabetic rats. Am J Pathol 136(6):1365–1373. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
232. Yasuda H, Dyck PJ. (1987) Abnormalities of endoneurial microvessels and sural nerve pathology in diabetic neuropathy. Neurology 37(1):20–28. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
233. Yasuda H, Sonobe M, Yamashita M, Terada M, Hatanaka I, Huitian Z, Shigeta Y (1989) Effect of prostaglandin E1 analogue TFC 612 on diabetic neuropathy in streptozocin‐induced diabetic rats. Comparison with aldose reductase inhibitor ONO 2235. Diabetes 38(7):832–838. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
234. Younger DS, Rosoklija G, Hays AP, Trojaborg W, Latov N. (1996) Diabetic peripheral neuropathy: a clinicopathologic and immunohistochemical analysis of sural nerve biopsies. Muscle Nerve 19(6):722–727. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
235. Zenon GJ, 3d , Abobo CV, Carter BL, Ball DW. (1990) Potential use of aldose reductase inhibitors to prevent diabetic complications. Clin Pharm 9(6):446–457. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
236. Ziegler D, Hanefeld M, Ruhnau KJ, Meissner HP, Lobisch M, Schutte K, Gries FA. (1995) Treatment of symptomatic diabetic peripheral neuropathy with the anti‐oxidant alphalipoic acid. A 3‐week multicentre randomized controlled trial (ALADIN Study). Diabetologia 38(12):1425–1433. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
237. Zochodne DW. (1996) Is early diabetic neuropathy a disorder of the dorsal root ganglion? A hypothesis and critique of some current ideas on the etiology of diabetic neuropathy. JPNS 1 (2):1–12. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
238. Zochodne DW. (1996) Neurotrophins and other growth factors in diabetic neuropathy. Semin Neurol 16(2):153–161. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
239. Zochodne DW, Allison JA, Ho W, Ho LT, Hargreaves K, Sharkey KA. (1995) Evidence for CGRP accumulation and activity in experimental neuromas. Am J Physiol 268(2 Pt 2):H584–H590. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
240. Zochodne DW, Cheng C, Sun H. (1996) Diabetes increases sciatic nerve susceptibility to endothelin‐induced ischemia. Diabetes 45(5):627–632. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
241. Zochodne DW, Ho LT. (1990) Endoneurial microenvironment and acute nerve crush injury in the rat sciatic nerve. Brain Res 535(1):43–48. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
242. Zochodne DW, Ho LT. (1991) Unique microvascular characteristics of the dorsal root ganglion in the rat. Brain Res 559(1):89–93. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
243. Zochodne DW, Ho LT. (1992) Hyperemia of injured peripheral nerve: sensitivity to CGRP antagonism. Brain Res 598(1–2):59–66. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
244. Zochodne DW, Ho LT. (1992) The influence of indomethacin and guanethidine on experimental streptozotocin diabetic neuropathy. Can J Neurol Sci 19(4):433–441. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
245. Zochodne DW, Ho LT. (1992) Normal blood flow but lower oxygen tension in diabetes of young rats: microenvironment and the influence of sympathectomy. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 70(5):651–659. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
246. Zochodne DW, Ho LT. (1993) Diabetes mellitus prevents capsaicin from inducing hyperaemia in the rat sciatic nerve. Diabetologia 36(6):493–496. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
247. Zochodne DW, Ho LT. (1994) The influence of sulindac on experimental streptozotocin‐induced diabetic neuropathy. Can J Neurol Sci 21 (3): 194–202. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
248. Zochodne DW, Ho LT. (1994) Neonatal guanethidine treatment alters endoneurial but not dorsal root ganglion perfusion in the rat. Brain Res 649(1–2):147–150. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
249. Zochodne DW, Ho LT, Allison JA. (1994) Dorsal root ganglia microenvironment of female BB Wistar diabetic rats with mild neuropathy. Can J Neurol Sci 127(1):36–42. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
250. Zochodne DW, Ho LT, Gross PM. (1992) Acute endoneurial ischemia induced by epineurial endothelin in the rat sciatic nerve. Am J Physiol 263(6 Pt 2):H1806–10. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
251. Zochodne DW, Murray MM, van der Sloot P, Riopelle RJ. (1995) Distal tibial mononeuropathy in diabetic and non‐diabetic rats reared on wire cages: an experimental entrapment neuropathy. Brain Res 698(1–2): 130–136. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
252. Zochodne DW, Nguyen C. (1997) Angiogenesis at the site of neuroma formation in transected peripheral nerve. J Anat 190:23–30. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
253. Zochodne DW, Nguyen C. Endoneurial neovascularity in experimental diabetes: quantitative studies of nerve and dorsal root ganglia microvessels. [In Press) Neurology 1998. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
254. Zollman P, Sahenk Z, Low PA. (1990) The effects of hyperbaric oxygenation on fast axoplasmic transport in streptozotocin‐induced diabetes. [Abstract]. Neurology 40:(Suppl 1)123. [Google Scholar]

[b1] 1. Ahlgren SC, Levine JD. (1994) Protein kinase C inhibitors decrease hyperalgesia and C‐fiber hyperexcitability in the streptozotocin‐diabetic rat. J Neurophysiol 72(2):684–692. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b2] 2. Aiello LP, Northrup JM, Keyt BA, Takagi H, Iwamoto MA. (1995) Hypoxic regulation of vascular endothelial growth factor in retinal cells. Arch Ophthalmol 113(12):1538–1544. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b3] 3. Aldskogius H, Northrup JM, Keyt BA, et al. (1992) Axotomy‐induced changes in primary sensory neurons. In: Sensory Neurons. Diversity development and plasticity. Scott SA., (Eds.) pp. 363–383, Oxford University Press. Oxford . [Google Scholar]

[b4] 4. Apfel SC, Arezzo JC, Brownlee M, Federoff H, Kessler JA. (1994) Nerve growth factor administration protects against experimental diabetic sensory neuropathy. Brain Res 634(1):7–12. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b5] 5. Arvidson B. (1979) Distribution of protein tracers in peripheral ganglia. Acta Univ Ups 344:1–72. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b6] 6. Asbury AK, Aldredge H, Hershberg R, Fisher CM. (1970) Oculomotor palsy in diabetes mellitus: a clinico‐patholog‐ical study. Brain 93(3):555–566. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b7] 7. Bargen JA, Bollman JL, Depler EJ. (1936) The “diarrhea of diabetes” and steatorrhea of pancreatic insufficiency. Proc Staff Meet Mayo Clin 11:737–742. [Google Scholar]

[b8] 8. Barohn RJ, Sahenk Z, Warmolts JR, Mendell JR. (1991) The Bruns‐Garland syndrome (diabetic amyotrophy). Revisited 100 years later. Arch Neurol 48(11):1130–1135. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b9] 9. Bianchi R, Marelli C, Marini P, Fabris M, Triban C, Fiori MG. (1990) Diabetic neuropathy in db/db mice develops independently of changes in ATPase and aldose reductase. A biochemical and immunohistochemical study. Diabetologia 33(3):131–136. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b10] 10. Bird SJ, Brown MJ. (1996) The clinical spectrum of diabetic neuropathy. Semin Neurol 16(2): 115–122. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b11] 11. Bisby MA. (1980) Axonal transport of labeled protein and regeneration rate in nerves of streptozocin‐diabetic rats. Exp Neurol 69(1):74–84. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b12] 12. Bisby MA. (1988) Dependence of GAP43 (B50, F1) transport on axonal regeneration in rat dorsal root ganglion neurons. Brain Res 458(1):157–161. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b13] 13. Bohlen HG, Hankins KD. (1982) Early arteriolar and capillary changes in streptozotocin‐induced diabetic rats and intraperitoneal hyperglycaemic rats. Diabetologia 22(5):344–348. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b14] 14. Bonni A, Greenberg ME. (1997) Neurotrophin regulation of gene expression. Can J Neurol Sci 24(4):272–283. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b15] 15. Borghini I, Ania‐Lahuerta A, Regazzi R, Ferrari G, Gjinovci A, Wollheim CB, Pralong WF. (1994) Alpha, beta I, beta II, delta, and epsilon protein kinase C isoforms and compound activity in the sciatic nerve of normal and diabetic rats. J Neurochem 62(2):686–696. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b16] 16. Bradley WE. (1980) Diagnosis of urinary bladder dysfunction in diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med 92(2 Pt 2):323–326. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b17] 17. Bradley WE, Lin JT (1987) Assessment of diabetic sexual dysfunction and cystopathy. In: Diabetic neuropathy. Dyck PJ, Thomas PK, Asbury AK, and et al. (Eds.). pp. 146–154, WB. Saunders. Philadelphia . [Google Scholar]

[b18] 18. Brett FM, Kalichman MW, Calcutt NA, Mizisin AP (1996) Effects of seven days of galactose feeding and aldose reductase inhibition on mast cells and vessel morphome‐try in rat sciatic nerve. J Neurol Sci 141 (1–2):6–12. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b19] 19. Brewster WJ, Fernyhough P, Diemel LT, Mohiuddin L, Tomlinson DR. (1994) Diabetic neuropathy, nerve growth factor and other neurotrophic factors. Trends Neurosci 17(8):321–325. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b20] 20. Brewster WJ, Fernyhough P, Diemel LT, Mohiuddin L, Tomlinson DR. (1995) Changes in nerve growth factor and preprotachykinin messenger RNA levels in the iris and trigeminal ganglion in diabetic rats; effects of treatment with insulin or nerve growth factor. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 29(1): 131–139. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b21] 21. Britland ST, Young RJ, Sharma AK, Clarke BF. (1992) Acute and remitting painful diabetic polyneuropathy: a comparison of peripheral nerve fibre pathology. Pain 48:361–370. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b22] 22. Brown MJ, Asbury AK. (1984) Diabetic neuropathy. Ann Neurol 15(1):2–12. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b23] 23. Brownlee M, Cerami A, Vlassara H. (1988) Advanced glycosylation end products in tissue and the biochemical basis of diabetic complications. N Engl J Med 318(20):1315–1321. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b24] 24. Brownlee M, Vlassara H, Kooney A, Ulrich P, Cerami A. (1986) Aminoguanidine prevents diabetes‐induced arterial wall protein cross‐linking. Science 232(4758):1629–1632. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b25] 25. Bucala R, Tracey KJ, Cerami A. (1991) Advanced glyco‐sylation products quench nitric oxide and mediate defective endothelium‐dependent vasodilation in experimental diabetes. J Clin Invest 87(2):432–438. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b26] 26. Calcutt NA, Muir D, Powell HC, Mizisin AP (1992) Reduced ciliary neuronotrophic factor‐like activity in nerves from diabetic or galactose‐fed rats. Brain Res 575(2):320–324. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b27] 27. Calver A, Collier J, Vallance P. (1992) Inhibition and stimulation of nitric oxide synthesis in the human forearm arterial bed of patients with insulin‐dependent diabetes. J Clin Invest 90(6):2548–2554. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b28] 28. Cameron NE, Cotter MA. (1993) Potential therapeutic approaches to the treatment or prevention of diabetic neuropathy: evidence from experimental studies. Diabet Med 10(7):593–605. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b29] 29. Cameron NE, Cotter MA, Dines K, Love A. (1992) Effects of aminoguanidine on peripheral nerve function and poly‐ol pathway metabolites in streptozotocin‐diabetic rats. Diabetologia 35(10):946–950. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b30] 30. Cameron NE, Cotter MA, Dines KC, Maxfield EK. (1993) Pharmacological manipulation of vascular endothelium function in non‐diabetic and streptozotocin‐diabetic rats: effects on nerve conduction, hypoxic resistance and endoneurial capillarization. Diabetologia 36(6):516–522. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b31] 31. Cameron NE, Cotter MA, Ferguson K, Robertson S, Radcliffe MA. (1991) Effects of chronic alpha‐adrenergic receptor blockade on peripheral nerve conduction, hypoxic resistance, polyols, Na(+)‐K(+)‐ATPase activity, and vascular supply in STZ‐D rats. Diabetes 40(12):1652–1658. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b32] 32. Cameron NE, Cotter MA, Low PA. (1991) Nerve blood flow in early experimental diabetes in rats: relation to conduction deficits. Am J Physiol 261(1 Pt 1):E1–8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b33] 33. Cherian PV, Kamijo M, Angelides KJ, Sima AA. (1996) Nodal Na(+)‐channel displacement is associated with nerve‐conduction slowing in the chronically diabetic BB/W rat: prevention by aldose reductase inhibition. J Diabetes Complications 10(4): 192–200. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b34] 34. Conti G, Stoll G, Scarpini E, Baron PL, Bianchi R, Livraghi S, Scarlato G. (1997) p75 neurotrophin receptor induction and macrophage infiltration in peripheral nerve during experimental diabetic neuropathy: possible relevance on regeneration. Exp Neurol 146(1):206–211. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b35] 35. Cullum NA, Mahon J, Stringer K, McLean WG. (1991) Glycation of rat sciatic nerve tubulin in experimental diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia 34(6):387–389. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b36] 36. Dahl‐Jorgensen K, Brinchmann‐Hansen O, Hanssen KF, Ganes T, Kierulf P, Smeland E, Sandvik L, Aagenaes O. (1985) Effect of near normoglycaemia for two years on progression of early diabetic retinopathy, nephropathy, and neuropathy: the Oslo study. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 290(6556):811–815. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b37] 37. Dahlin LB, Meiri KF, McLean WG, Rydevik B, Sjostrand J. (1986) Effects of nerve compression on fast axonal transport in streptozotocin‐induced diabetes mellitus. An experimental study in the sciatic nerve of rats. Diabetologia 29(3):181–185. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b38] 38. Dashwood MR, Thomas PK. (1997) Neurovascular [1251]‐ET‐1 binding sites on human peripheral nerve. Endothelium 5(2):119–123. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b39] 39. Dewhurst M, Omawari N, Tomlinson DR. (1997) Aminoguanidine‐effects on endoneurial vasoactive nitric oxide and on motor nerve conduction velocity in control and streptozotocin‐diabetic rats. Br J Pharmacol 120(4):593–598. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b40] 40. Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group . (1993) The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long‐term complications in insulin‐dependent diabetes mellitus. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. N Engl J Med 329(14):977–986. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b41] 41. Diederich D, Skopec J, Diederich A, Dai FX. (1994) Endothelial dysfunction in mesenteric resistance arteries of diabetic rats: role of free radicals. Am J Physiol 266(3 Pt2):H1153–H1161. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b42] 42. Dines KC, Mizisin AP, Jorge MC, Nunag KD, Kalichman MW. (1997) Effects of body and hindlimb temperature on laser Doppler blood flow and vascular conductance in rat sciatic nerve and skeletal muscle. J Neurol Sci 148(1):7–13. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b43] 43. Durante W, Sen AK, Sunahara FA. (1988) Impairment of endothelium‐dependent relaxation in aortae from spontaneously diabetic rats. Br J Pharmacol 94(2):463–468. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b44] 44. Dyck PJ. (1989) Hypoxic neuropathy: does hypoxia play a role in diabetic neuropathy? The 1988 Robert Wartenberg lecture. Neurology 39(1):111–118. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b45] 45. Dyck PJ, Engelstad JK, Giannini C, Lais AC, Minnerath SR, Karnes JL. (1989) Resistance to axonal degeneration after nerve compression in experimental diabetes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 86(6):2103–2106. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b46] 46. Dyck PJ, Giannini C. (1996) Pathologic alterations in the diabetic neuropathies of humans: a review. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 55(12): 1181–1193. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b47] 47. Dyck PJ, Hansen S, Karnes J, O'Brien P, Yasuda H, Windebank A, Zimmerman B. (1985) Capillary number and percentage closed in human diabetic sural nerve. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 82(8):2513–2517. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b48] 48. Dyck PJ, Karnes J, O'Brien PC. (1987) Detection thresholds of cutaneous sensation. In: Diabetic Neuropathy. Dyck PJ, Thomas PK, Asbury AK, Winegrad AL, and Porte D. (Eds.). 11. pp. 107–121, W.B. Saunders. Toronto . [Google Scholar]

[b49] 49. Dyck PJ, Karnes JL, O'Brien P, Okazaki H, Lais A, Engelstad J. (1986) The spatial distribution of fiber loss in diabetic polyneuropathy suggests ischemia. Ann Neurol 19(5):440–449. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b50] 50. Dyck PJ, Lais A, Karnes JL, O'Brien P, Rizza R. (1986) Fiber loss is primary and multifocal in sural nerves in diabetic polyneuropathy. Ann Neurol 19(5):425–439. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b51] 51. Dyck PJ, Lais AC, Giannini C, Engelstad JK. (1990) Structural alterations of nerve during cuff compression. Proc NatlAcad Sci USA 87(24):9828–9832. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b52] 52. Dyck PJ, Sherman WR, Hallcher LM, Service FJ, O'Brien PC, Grina LA, Palumbo PJ, Swanson CJ. (1980) Human diabetic endoneurial sorbitol, fructose, and myo‐inositol related to sural nerve morphometry. Ann Neurol 8(6):590–596. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b53] 53. Dyck PJ, Zimmerman IR, Johnson DM, Gillen D, Hokanson JL, Karnes JL, Gruener G, O'Brien PC. (1996) A standard test of heat‐pain responses using CASE IV. J Neurol Sci 136(1–2): 54–63. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b54] 54. Ekstrom PA, Tomlinson DR. (1989) Impaired nerve regeneration in streptozotocin‐diabetic rats is improved by treatment with gangliosides. J Neurol Sci 93:231–237. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b55] 55. Elliott TG, Cockcroft JR, Groop PH, Viberti GC, Ritter JM. (1993) Inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis in forearm vasculature of insulin‐dependent diabetic patients: blunted vasoconstriction in patients with microalbuminuria. Clin Sci (Colch) 85(6) :687–693. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b56] 56. Ewing DJ. (1990) Which battery of cardiovascular autonomie function tests Diabetologia 33:180–181. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b57] 57. Ewing DJ, Boland O, Neilson JM, Cho CG, Clarke BF. (1991) Autonomie neuropathy, QT interval lengthening, and unexpected deaths in male diabetic patients. Diabetologia 34(3): 182–185. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b58] 58. Ewing DJ, Clarke BF. (1986) Diabetic autonomie neuropathy: present insights and future prospects. Diabetes Care 9(6):648–665. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b59] 59. Ewing DJ, Martyn CN, Young RJ, Clarke BF. (1985) The value of cardiovascular autonomie function tests: 10 years experience in diabetes. Diabetes Care 8(5):491–498. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b60] 60. Fagerberg SE. (1959) Diabetic neuropathy: a clinical and histological study on the significance of vascular affectins. [Abstract]. Acta Med Scand 164:(Supplement 345)1. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b61] 61. Fahey TJ, 3d , Sadaty A, Jones WG, 2d , Barber A, Smoller B, Shires GT. (1991) Diabetes impairs the late inflammatory response to wound healing. J Surg Res 50(4):308–313. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b62] 62. Feldman M, Schiller LR. (1983) Disorders of gastrointestinal motility associated with diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern med 98(3):378–384. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b63] 63. Fernyhough P, Diemel LT, Brewster WJ, Tomlinson DR. (1994) Deficits in sciatic nerve neuropeptide content coincide with a reduction in target tissue nerve growth factor messenger RNA in streptozotocin‐diabetic rats: effects of insulin treatment. Neuroscience 62(2):337–344. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b64] 64. Fernyhough P, Diemel LT, Brewster WJ, Tomlinson DR. (1995) Altered neurotrophin mRNA levels in peripheral nerve and skeletal muscle of experimentally diabetic rats. J Neurochem 64(3): 1231–1237. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b65] 65. Fernyhough P, Diemel LT, Hardy J, Brewster WJ, Mohiuddin L, Tomlinson DR. (1995) Human recombinant nerve growth factor replaces deficient neurotrophic support in the diabetic rat. Eur J Neurosci 7(5)A 107–1110. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b66] 66. Franklin GM, Kahn LB, Baxter J, Marshall JA, Hamman RF. (1990) Sensory neuropathy in non‐insulin‐dependent diabetes mellitus. The San Luis Valley Diabetes Study. Am J Epidemiol 131 (4):633–643. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b67] 67. Funakoshi H, Frisen J, Barbany G, Timmusk T, Zachrisson O, Verge VMK, Persson H. (1993) Differential expression of mRNAs for neurotrophins and their receptors after axotomy of the sciatic nerve. J Cell Biol 123(2):455–465. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b68] 68. Goodman JI. (1966) Diabetic anhidrosis. Am J Med 41(5):831–835. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b69] 69. Greenbaum D, Richardson PC, Salmon MV, Urich H. (1964) Pathological observations on six cases of diabetic neuropathy. Brain 87(2):201–219. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b70] 70. Greene DA, Arezzol J, Brown M, et al. (1996) Dose related effects of the aldose reductase inhibitor Zendrestat on nerve sorbitol levels, nerve conduction velocity and nerve fiber density in human diabetic neuropathy. [Abstract]. Diabetes 45:5A. [Google Scholar]

[b71] 71. Greene DA, Lattimer S, Ulbrecht J, Carroll P. (1985) Glucose‐induced alterations in nerve metabolism: current perspective on the pathogenesis of diabetic neuropathy and future directions for research and therapy. Diabetes Care 8(3):290–299. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b72] 72. Greene DA, Lattimer SA, Sima AA. (1987) Sorbitol, phosphoinositides, and sodium‐potassium‐ATPase in the pathogenesis of diabetic complications. N Engl J Med 316(10):599–606. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b73] 73. Greene DA, Winegrad AI, Carpentier JL, Brown MJ, Fukuma M, Orci L. (1979) Rabbit sciatic nerve fascicle and ‘endoneurial’ preparations for in vitro studies of peripheral nerve glucose metabolism. J Neurochem 33(5):1007–1018. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b74] 74. Gupta S, Sussman I, McArthur CS, Tornheim K, Cohen RA, Ruderman NB. (1992) Endothelium‐dependent inhibition of Na(+)‐K+ ATPase activity in rabbit aorta by hyper‐glycemia. Possible role of endothelium‐derived nitric oxide. J Clin Invest 90(3):727–732. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b75] 75. Hellweg R, Raivich G, Hartung HD, Hock C, Kreutzberg GW (1994) Axonal transport of endogenous nerve growth factor (NGF) and NGF receptor in experimental diabetic neuropathy. Exp Neurol 130(1):24–30. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b76] 76. Hellweg R, Wohrle M, Hartung HD, Stracke H, Hock C, Federlin K. (1991) Diabetes mellitus‐associated decrease in nerve growth factor levels is reversed by allogeneic pancreatic islet transplantation. Neurosci Lett 125(1):1–4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b77] 77. Heumann R, Lindholm D, Bandtlow C, Meyer M, Radeke MJ, Misko TP, Shooter E, Thoenen H. (1987) Differential regulation of mRNA encoding nerve growth factor and its receptor in rat sciatic nerve during development, degeneration, and regeneration: role of macrophages. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 84(23):8735–8739. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b78] 78. Hill MA, Meininger GA, Larkins RG. (1990) Alterations in microvascular reactivity in experimental diabetes mellitus: contribution of the endothelium.ln: Endothelial cell function in diabetic microangiopathy: Problmes in methodology and clinical aspects. Front Diabetes. Molinatti GM, Bar RS, Belfiore F, and Porta M. (Eds.). pp. 118–126, Basel . Karger. [Google Scholar]

[b79] 79. Holman RR, Dornan TL, Mayon‐White V, Howard‐Williams J, Orde‐Peckar C, Jenkins L, Steemson J, Rolfe R, Smith B, Barbour D, et al. (1983) Prevention of deterioration of renal and sensory‐nerve function by more intensive management of insulin‐dependent diabetic patients. A two‐year randomised prospective study. Lancet 1(8318):204–208. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b80] 80. Horowitz M, Fraser R. (1994) Disordered gastric motor function in diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia 37:543–551. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b81] 81. Ido Y, Chang K, LeJeune W, Tilton RG, Monafo WW, Williamson JR. (1997) Diabetes impairs sciatic nerve hyperemia induced by surgical trauma: implications for diabetic neuropathy. Am J Physiol 273(1 Pt 1):E174–84. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b82] 82. Ishii DN. (1993) Insulin and related neurotrophic factors in diabetic neuropathy. Diabet Med 10(Suppl. 2):14S–15S. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b83] 83. Ishii DN. (1995) Implication of insulin‐like growth factors in the pathogenesis of diabetic neuropathy. Brain Res Brain Res Rev 20(1):47–67. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b84] 84. Ishii H, Jirousek MR, Koya D, Takagi C, Xia P, Clermont A, Bursell SE, Kern TS, Ballas LM, Heath WF, et al. (1996) Amelioration of vascular dysfunctions in diabetic rats by an oral PKC beta inhibitor. Science 272(5262):728–731. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b85] 85. Jaffey PB, Gelman BB. (1996) Increased vulnerability to demyelination in streptozotocin diabetic rats. J Comp Neurol 373(1):55–61. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b86] 86. Jakobsen J, Sidenius P. (1980) Decreased axonal transport of structural proteins in streptozotocin diabetic rats. J Clin Invest 66(2):292–297. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b87] 87. Johnson PC, Doll SC, Cromey DW (1986) Pathogenesis of diabetic neuropathy. Ann Neurol 19(5):450–457. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b88] 88. Judzewitsch RG, Jaspan JB, Polonsky KS, Weinberg CR, Halter JB, Halar E, Pfeifer MA, Vukadinovic C, Bernstein L, Schneider M, et al. (1983) Aldose reductase inhibition improves nerve conduction velocity in diabetic patients. N EnglJ Med 308(3):119–125. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b89] 89. Kadekaro M, Crane AM, Sokoloff L. (1985) Differential effects of electrical stimulation of sciatic nerve on metabolic activity in spinal cord and dorsal root ganglion in the rat. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 82(17):6010–6013. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b90] 90. Kamijo M, Merry AC, Akdas G, Cherian PV, Sima AA. (1996) Nerve fiber regeneration following axotomy in the diabetic biobreeding Worcester rat: the effect of ARI treatment. J Diabetes Complications 10(4):183–191. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b91] 91. Kaplan DR, Miller FD. (1997) Signal transduction by the neurotrophin receptors. Curr Opin Cell Biol 9(2):213–221. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b92] 92. Kappelle AC, Biessels G, Bravenboer B, Van Buren T, Traber J, De Wildt DJ, Gispen WH. (1994) Beneficial effect of the Ca2+ antagonist, nimodipine, on existing diabetic neuropathy in the BB/Wor rat. Br J Pharmacol 111(3):887–893. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b93] 93. Kappelle AC, Bravenboer B, Van Buren T, Traber J, Erkelens DW, Gispen WH. (1993) Amelioration by the Ca2+ antagonist, nimodipine of an existing neuropathy in the streptozotocin‐induced, diabetic rat. Br J Pharmacol 108(3):780–785. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b94] 94. Kassander P. (1958) Asymptomatic gastric retention in diabetes (gastroparesis diabeticorum). Ann Intern Med 48:797–812. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b95] 95. Keen H, Payan J, Allawi J, Walker J, Jamal GA, Weir AI, Henderson LM, Bissessar EA, Watkins PJ, Sampson M. (1993) Treatment of diabetic neuropathy with gammalinolenic acid. The gamma‐Linolenic Acid Multicenter Trial Group. Diabetes Care 16(1):8–15. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b96] 96. Kennedy WR, Sakuta M, Sutherland D, Goetz FC. (1984) Quantitation of the sweating deficiency in diabetes mellitus. Ann Neurol 15(5):482–488. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b97] 97. Kihara M, Low PA. (1995) Impaired vasoreactivity to nitric oxide in experimental diabetic neuropathy. Exp Neurol 0132(2): 180–185. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b98] 98. Kihara M, Opfer‐Gehrking TL, Low PA. (1993) Comparison of directly stimulated with axon‐reflex‐medi‐ated sudomotor responses in human subjects and in patients with diabetes. Muscle Nerve 16(6):655–660. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b99] 99. Kihara M, Schmelzer JD, Poduslo JF, Curran GL, Nickander KK, Low PA. (1991) Aminoguanidine effects on nerve blood flow, vascular permeability, electrophysiology, and oxygen free radicals. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 88(14):6107–6111. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b100] 100. King RH, Llewelyn JG, Thomas PK, Gilbey SG, Watkins PJ. (1989) Diabetic neuropathy: abnormalities of Schwann cell and perineurial basal laminae. Implications for diabetic vasculopathy. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 15(4):339–355. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b101] 101. Kirchain WR, Rendell MS. (1990) Aldose reductase inhibitors. Pharmacotherapy 10(5):326–336. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b102] 102. Kowluru R, Bitensky MW, Kowluru A, Dembo M, Keaton PA, Buican T. (1989) Reversible sodium pump defect and swelling in the diabetic rat erythrocyte: effects on filter‐ability and implications for microangiopathy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 86(9):3327–3331. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b103] 103. Krendel DA, Costigan DA, Hopkins LC. (1995) Successful treatment of neuropathies in patients with diabetes mellitus. Arch Neurol 52(11):1053–1061. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b104] 104. Krolewski AS, Warram JH, Cupples A, Gorman CK, Szabo AJ, Christlieb AR. (1985) Hypertension, orthostat‐ic hypotension and the microvascular complications of diabetes. J Chronic Dis 38(4):319–326. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b105] 105. Larkins RG, Dunlop ME, Johnson El. (1996) Norman MacAlister Gregg Lecture. The pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy. Aust N Z J Ophthalmol 24(2):97–104. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b106] 106. Lieberman AR. (1971) The axon reaction: a review of the principal features of perikaryal responses to axon injury. Int Rev Neurobiol 14:49–124. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b107] 107. Llewelyn JG, Gilbey SG, Thomas PK, King RH, Muddle JR, Watkins PJ. (1991) Sural nerve morphometry in diabetic autonomie and painful sensory neuropathy. A clini‐copathological study. Brain 114(Pt 2):867–892. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b108] 108. Llewelyn JG, Thomas PK, Gilbey SG, Watkins PJ, Muddle JR. (1988) Pattern of myelinated fibre loss in the sural nerve in neuropathy related to type 1 (insulin‐dependent) diabetes. Diabetologia 31 (3):162–167. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b109] 109. Longo FM, Powell HC, Lebeau J, Gerrero MR, Heckman H, Myers RR. (1986) Delayed nerve regeneration in streptozotocin diabetic rats. Muscle Nerve 9(5):385–393. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b110] 110. Low PA. (1996) Diabetic autonomie neuropathy. Semin Neurol 16(2):143–151. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b111] 111. Low PA, Nickander KK. (1991) Oxygen free radical effects in sciatic nerve in experimental diabetes. Diabetes 40(7):873–877. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b112] 112. Low PA, Nickander KK, Tritschler HJ. (1997) The roles of oxidative stress and antioxidant treatment in experimental diabetic neuropathy. Diabetes 46(Suppl 2):S38–S42. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b113] 113. Low PA, Schmelzer JD, Ward KK, Yao JK. (1986) Experimental chronic hypoxic neuropathy: relevance to diabetic neuropathy. Am J Physiol 250(1 Pt 1):E94–E99. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b114] 114. Low PA, Tuck RR, Dyck PJ, Schmelzer JD, Yao JK. (1984) Prevention of some electrophysiologic and biochemical abnormalities with oxygen supplementation in experimental diabetic neuropathy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 81(21):6894–6898. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b115] 115. Low PA, Walsh JC, Huang CY, McLeod JG. (1975) The sympathetic nervous system in diabetic neuropathy. A clinical and pathological study. Brain 98(3):341–356. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b116] 116. Low PA, Ward K, Schmelzer JD, Brimijoin S. (1985) Ischemie conduction failure and energy metabolism in experimental diabetic neuropathy. Am J Physiol 248(4 Pt 1):E457–62. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b117] 117. Low PA, Zimmerman BR, Dyck PJ. (1986) Comparison of distal sympathetic with vagal function in diabetic neuropathy. Muscle Nerve 9(7):592–596. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b118] 118. Maeda K, Fernyhough P, Tomlinson DR. (1996) Regenerating sensory neurones of diabetic rats express reduced levels of mRNA for GAP‐43, gamma‐prepro‐tachykinin and the nerve growth factor receptors, trkA and p75NGFR. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 37(1–2):166–174. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b119] 119. Malik RA. (1997) The pathology of human diabetic neuropathy. Diabetes 46(Suppl 2):S50–S53. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b120] 120. Malik RA, Newrick PG, Sharma AK, Jennings A, Ah‐See AK, Mayhew TM, Jakubowski J, Boulton AJ, Ward JD. (1989) Microangiopathy in human diabetic neuropathy: relationship between capillary abnormalities and the severity of neuropathy. Diabetologia 32(2):92–102. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b121] 121. Malik RA, Tesfaye S, Thompson SD, Veves A, Sharma AK, Boulton AJ, Ward JD. (1993) Endoneurial localisation of microvascular damage in human diabetic neuropathy. Diabetologia 36(5):454–459. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b122] 122. Malik RA, Veves A, Masson EA, Sharma AK, Ah‐See AK, Schady W, Lye RH, Boulton AJ. (1992) Endoneurial capillary abnormalities in mild human diabetic neuropathy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 55(7):557–561. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b123] 123. Maser RE, Steenkiste AR, Dorman JS, Nielsen VK, Bass EB, Manjoo Q, Drash AL, Becker DJ, Kuller LH, Greene DA. (1989) Epidemiological correlates of diabetic neuropathy. Report from Pittsburgh Epidemiology of Diabetes Complications Study. Diabetes 38(11):1456–1461. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b124] 124. Masson EA, Church SE, Woodcock AA, Hanley SP, Boulton AJ. (1988) Is resistance to ischaemic conduction failure induced by hypoxia. Diabetologia 31(10):762–765. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b125] 125. Matthews CC, Feldman EL. (1996) Insulin‐like growth factor I rescues SH‐SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells from hyperosmotic induced programmed cell death. J Cell Physiol 166(2):323–331. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b126] 126. Mayer JH, Tomlinson DR. (1983) The influence of aldose reductase inhibition and nerve myo‐inositol on axonal transport and nerve conduction velocity in rats with experimental diabetes. J Physiol 340:25–28. [Google Scholar]

[b127] 127. Mayhan WG, Faraci FM. (1993) Responses of cerebral arterioles in diabetic rats to activation of ATP‐sensitive potassium channels. Am J Physiol 265(1 Pt 2):H152–H157. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b128] 128. McCulloch DK, Campbell IW, Wu FC, Prescott RJ, Clarke BF. (1980) The prevalence of diabetic impotence. Diabetologia 18(4):279–283. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b129] 129. McLean WG. (1997) The role of axonal cytoskeleton in diabetic neuropathy. Neurochem Res 22(8):951–956. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b130] 130. McLean WG, Pekiner C, Cullum NA, Casson IF. (1992) Posttranslational modifications of nerve cytoskeletal proteins in experimental diabetes. Mol Neurobiol 6(2–3):225–237. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b131] 131. McNeely MJ, Boyko EJ, Ahroni JH, Stensel VL, Reiber GE, Smith DG, Pecoraro RF. (1995) The independent contributions of diabetic neuropathy and vasculopathy in foot ulceration. How great are the risks. Diabetes Care 18(2):216–219. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b132] 132. Medori R, Autilio‐Gambetti L, Jenich H, Gambetti P. (1988) Changes in axon size and slow axonal transport are related in experimental diabetic neuropathy. Neurology 38(4):597–601. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b133] 133. Medori R, Autilio‐Gambetti L, Monaco S, Gambetti P. (1985) Experimental diabetic neuropathy: impairment of slow transport with changes in axon cross‐sectional area. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 82(22):7716–7720. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b134] 134. Medori R, Jenich H, Autilio‐Gambetti L, Gambetti P. (1988) Experimental diabetic neuropathy: similar changes of slow axonal transport and axonal size in different animal models. J Neurosci 8(5):1814–1821. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b135] 135. Minchenko A, Bauer T, Salceda S, Caro J. (1994) Hypoxic stimulation of vascular endothelial growth factor expression in vitro and in vivo. Lab Invest 71(3):374–379. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b136] 136. Mizisin AP, Calcutt NA. (1991) Dose‐dependent alterations in nerve polyols and (Na+, K+)‐ATPase activity in galactose intoxication. Metabolism 40(11):1207–1212. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b137] 137. Mizisin AP, Calcutt NA, DiStefano PS, Acheson A, Longo FM. (1997) Aldose reductase inhibition increases CNTF‐like bioactivity and protein in sciatic nerves from galactose‐fed and normal rats. Diabetes 46(4):647–652. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b138] 138. Mizisin AP, Li L, Calcutt NA. (1997) Sorbitol accumulation and transmembrane efflux in osmotically stressed JS1 schwannoma cells. Neurosci Lett 229(1):53–56. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b139] 139. Mizisin AP, Powell HC. (1997) Schwann cell changes induced as early as one week after galactose intoxication. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 93(6):611–618. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b140] 140. Mizisin AP, Powell HC, Myers RR. (1986) Edema and increased endoneurial sodium in galactose neuropathy. Reversal with an aldose reductase inhibitor. J Neurol Sci 74(1):35–43. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b141] 141. Mohiuddin L, Fernyhough P, Tomlinson DR. (1995) Reduced levels of mRNA encoding endoskeletal and growth‐associated proteins in sensory ganglia in experimental diabetes. Diabetes 44(1):25–30. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b142] 142. Molinatti GM, Bar RS, Belfiore F, et al. (1990) Endothelial cell function in diabetic microangiopathy: problems in methodology and clinical aspects. Molinatti GM, Bar RS, Belfiore F, and Porta M. (Eds.). Karger Press. NewYork . [Google Scholar]

[b143] 143. Nagamatsu M, Nickander KK, Schmelzer JD, Raya A, Wittrock DA, Tritschler H, Low PA. (1995) Lipoic acid improves nerve blood flow, reduces oxidative stress, and improves distal nerve conduction in experimental diabetic neuropathy. Diabetes Care 18(8): 1160–1167. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b144] 144. Nakamura J, Koh N, Sakakibara F, Hamada Y, Wakao T, Hara T, Mori K, Nakashima E, Naruse K, Hotta N. (1995) Polyol pathway, 2, 3‐diphosphoglycerate in erythrocytes and diabetic neuropathy in rats. Eur J Pharmacol 294(1):207–214. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b145] 145. Newrick PG, Wilson AJ, Jakubowski J, Boulton AJ, Ward JD. (1986) Sural nerve oxygen tension in diabetes. Br Med J 293(6554): 1053–1054. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b146] 146. Nukada H. (1986) Increased susceptibility to ischemie damage in streptozocin‐diabetic nerve. Diabetes 35(9): 1058–1061. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b147] 147. Nukada H. (1992) Mild ischemia causes severe pathological changes in experimental diabetic nerve. Muscle Nerve 15(10):1116–1122. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b148] 148. O'Brien IA, O'Hare JP, Lewin IG, Corrall RJ. (1986) The prevalence of autonomie neuropathy in insulin‐dependent diabetes mellitus: a controlled study based on heart rate variability. Q J Med 61(234):957–967. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b149] 149. Parkhouse N, Le Quesne PM. (1988) Impaired neurogenic vascular response in patients with diabetes and neuropathic foot lesions. N Engl J Med 318(20):1306–1309. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b150] 150. Parry GJ, Kohzu H. (1989) Studies of resistance to ischemic nerve conduction failure in normal and diabetic rats. J Neurol Sci 93(1):61–67. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b151] 151. Pekiner C, Dent EW, Roberts RE, Meiri KF, McLean WG. (1996) Altered GAP‐43 immunoreactivity in regenerating sciatic nerve of diabetic rats. Diabetes 45(2): 199–204. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b152] 152. Peripheral Nerve Society. (1995) Diabetic polyneuropathy in controlled clinical trials: Consensus Report of the Peripheral Nerve Society. Ann Neurol 38(3):478–482. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b153] 153. Pfeifer MA, Cook D, Brodsky J, Tice D, Parrish D, Reenan A, Halter JB, Porte D, Jr. (1982) Quantitative evaluation of sympathetic and parasympathetic control of iris function. Diabetes Care 5(5):518–528. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b154] 154. Pfeifer MA, Schumer MP, Gelber DA. (1997) Aldose reductase inhibitors: the end of an era or the need for different trial designs Diabetes 46(Suppl. 2):S82–S89. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b155] 155. Pfeifer MA, Weinberg CR, Cook DL, Reenan A, Halter JB, Ensinck JW, Porte D, Jr. (1984) Autonomie neural dysfunction in recently diagnosed diabetic subjects. Diabetes Care 7(5):447–453. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b156] 156. Pirart J. (1977) [Diabetes mellitus and its degenerative complications: a prospective study of 4,400 patients observed between 1947 and 1973 (author's transl)]. Diabete Metab 3(2):97–107. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b157] 157. Powell HC, Garrett RS, Kador PF, Mizisin AP (1991) Fine‐structural localization of aldose reductase and ouabain‐sensitive, K(+)‐dependent p‐nitro‐phenylphosphatase in rat peripheral nerve. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 81(5):529–539. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b158] 158. Pugliese G, Tilton RG, Speedy A, Chang K, Santarelli E, Province MA, Eades D, Sherman WR, Williamson JR. (1989) Effects of very mild versus overt diabetes on vascular haemodynamics and barrier function in rats. Diabetologia 32(12):845–857. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b159] 159. Raff MC, Sangalang V, Asbury AK. (1968) Ischémie mononeuropathy multiplex associated with diabetes mellitus. Arch Neurol 18(5):487–499. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b160] 160. Roberts RE, McLean WG. (1997) Protein kinase C isozyme expression in sciatic nerves and spinal cords of experimentally diabetic rats. Brain Res 754(1–2):147–156. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b161] 161. Rundles RW (1945) Diabetic neuropathy. General review with report of 125 cases. [Abstract]. Medicine 24:111–60. [Google Scholar]

[b162] 162. Russell JW, Parekh A, Singleton JR, et al. (1996) Insulin‐like growth factor‐1 (IGF‐1) modulates programmed cell death pathways in hyperglycemic neurons. [Abstract]. Ann Neurol 40:954. [Google Scholar]

[b163] 163. Ryle C, Leow CK, Donaghy M. (1997) Nonenzymatic glycation of peripheral and central nervous system proteins in experimental diabetes mellitus. Muscle Nerve 20(5):577–584. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b164] 164. Said G, Elgrably F, Lacroix C, Plante V, Talamon C, Adams D, Tager M, Slama G. (1997) Painful proximal diabetic neuropathy: inflammatory nerve lesions and spontaneous favorable outcome. Ann Neurol 41 (6):762–770. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b165] 165. Said G, Goulon‐Goeau C, Lacroix C, Moulonguet A. (1994) Nerve biopsy findings in different patterns of proximal diabetic neuropathy. Ann Neurol 35(5):559–569. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b166] 166. Sampson MJ, Wilson S, Karagiannis P, Edmonds M, Watkins PJ. (1990) Progression of diabetic autonomie neuropathy over a decade in insulin‐dependent diabetics. QJ Med 75(278):635–646. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b167] 167. Sango K, Verdes JM, Hikawa N, Horie H, Tanaka S, Inoue S, Sotelo JR, Takenaka T. (1994) Nerve growth factor (NGF) restores depletions of calcitonin gene‐related peptide and substance P in sensory neurons from diabetic mice in vitro. J Neurol Sci 126(1):1–5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b168] 168. Sasaki H, Schmelzer JD, Zollman PJ, Low PA. (1997) Neuropathology and blood flow of nerve, spinal roots and dorsal root ganglia in longstanding diabetic rats. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 93(2):118–128. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b169] 169. Schmelzer JD, Zochodne DW, Low PA. (1989) Ischemic and reperfusion injury of rat peripheral nerve. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 86(5):1639–1642. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b170] 170. Schmidt RE, Grabau GG, Yip HK. (1986) Retrograde axonal transport of [125l]nerve growth factor in ileal mesenteric nerves in vitro: effect of streptozotocin diabetes. Brain Res 378(2):325–336. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b171] 171. Schmidt RE, Plurad SB. (1986) Ultrastructural and biochemical characterization of autonomie neuropathy in rats with chronic streptozotocin diabetes. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 45(5):525–544. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b172] 172. Schmidt RE, Scharp DW. (1982) Axonal dystrophy in experimental diabetic autonomie neuropathy. Diabetes 31(9):761–770. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b173] 173. Schmidt Y, Unger JW, Bartke I, Reiter R. (1995) Effect of nerve growth factor on peptide neurons in dorsal root ganglia after taxol or cisplatin treatment and in diabetic (db/db) mice. Exp Neurol 132(1):16–23. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b174] 174. Schneider U, Jund R, Nees S, Grafe P. (1992) Differences in sensitivity to hyperglycemic hypoxia of isolated rat sensory and motor nerve fibers. Ann Neurol 31 (6):605–610. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b175] 175. Schneider U, Niedermeier W, Grafe P. (1993) The paradox between resistance to hypoxia and liability to hypoxic damage in hyperglycemic peripheral nerves. Evidence for glycolysis involvement. Diabetes 42(7):981–987. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b176] 176. Sharma AK, Thomas PK. (1974) Peripheral nerve structure and function in experimental diabetes. J Neurol Sci 23(1):1–15. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b177] 177. Shiba T, Inoguchi T, Sportsman JR, Heath WF, Bursell S, King GL. (1993) Correlation of diacylglycerol level and protein kinase C activity in rat retina to retinal circulation. Am J Physiol 265(5 Pt 1):E783–93. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b178] 178. Sidenius P, Jakobsen J. (1982) Reversibility and prevent‐ability of the decrease in slow axonal transport velocity in experimental diabetes. Diabetes 31 (8 Pt 1):689–693. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b179] 179. Sima AA, Bril V, Nathaniel V, McEwen TA, Brown MB, Lattimer SA, Greene DA. (1988) Regeneration and repair of myelinated fibers in sural‐nerve biopsy specimens from patients with diabetic neuropathy treated with sorbinil. N Engl J Med 319(9):548–555. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b180] 180. Sima AA, Prashar A, Nathaniel V, Bril V, Werb MR, Greene DA. (1993) Overt diabetic neuropathy: repair of axo‐glial dysjunction and axonal atrophy by aldose reductase inhibition and its correlation to improvement in nerve conduction velocity. Diabet Med 10(2):115–121. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b181] 181. Sima AAF, Brismar T, Yagihashi S. (1987) Neuropathies encountered in the spontaneously diabetic BB wistar rat. In: Diabetic Neuropathy. Dyck PJ, Thomas PK, Asbury AK, Winegrad AI, and Porte D. (Eds.). W.B. Saunders. Toronto . [Google Scholar]

[b182] 182. Simpson LO. (1988) Altered blood rheology in the pathogenesis of diabetic and other neuropathies. Muscle Nerve 11 (7):725–744. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b183] 183. Singhal A, Cheng C, Sun H, Zochodne DW. (1997) Near nerve local insulin treatment prevents conduction abnormalities in experimental diabetes. Brain Res 763:209–214. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b184] 184. Smith SA, Smith SE. (1983) Evidence for a neuropathic aetiology in the small pupil of diabetes mellitus. Br J Ophthalmol 67(2):89–93. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b185] 185. Solders G, Thalme B, Aguirre‐Aquino M, Brandt L, Berg U, Persson A. (1997) Nerve conduction and autonomie nerve function in diabetic children. A 10‐year follow‐up study. Ada Paed/afr 86(4):361–366. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b186] 186. Stevens EJ, Carrington AL, Tomlinson DR. (1994) Nerve ischaemia in diabetic rats: time‐course of development, effect of insulin treatment plus comparison of streptozotocin and BB models. Diabetologia 37(1):43–48. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b187] 187. Stevens EJ, Tomlinson DR. (1995) Effects of endothelin receptor antagonism with bosentan on peripheral nerve function in experimental diabetes. Br J Pharmacol 115(2):373–379. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b188] 188. Stevens MJ, Dananberg J, Feldman EL, Lattimer SA, Kamijo M, Thomas TP, Shindo H, Sima AA, Greene DA. (1994) The linked roles of nitric oxide, aldose reductase and, (Na+, K+)‐ATPase in the slowing of nerve conduction in the streptozotocin diabetic rat. J Clin Invest 94(2):853–859. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b189] 189. Sugimura K, Dyck PJ. (1981) Sural nerve myelin thickness and axis cylinder caliber in human diabetes. Neurology 31 (9):1087–1091. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b190] 190. Takahashi K, Ghatei MA, Lam HC, O'Halloran DJ, Bloom SR. (1990) Elevated plasma endothelin in patients with diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia 33(5):306–310. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b191] 191. Tamura E, Parry GJ. (1994) Severe radicular pathology in rats with longstanding diabetes. J Neurol Sci 127(1):29–35. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b192] 192. Taniuchi M, Clark HB, Schweitzer JB, Johnson EM, Jr. (1988) Expression of nerve growth factor receptors by Schwann cells of axotomized peripheral nerves: ultra‐structural location, suppression by axonal contact, and binding properties. J Neurosci 8(2):664–681. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b193] 193. Tantuwaya VS, Bailey SB, Schmidt RE, Villadiego A, Tong JX, Rich KM. (1997) Peripheral nerve regeneration through silicone chambers in streptozocin‐induced diabetic rats. Brain Res 759(1):58–66. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b194] 194. Taylor PD, Oon BB, Thomas CR, Poston L. (1994) Prevention by insulin treatment of endothelial dysfunction but not enhanced noradrenaline‐induced contractility in mesenteric resistance arteries from streptozotocin‐induced diabetic rats. Br J Pharmacol 111(1):35–41. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b195] 195. Terada M, Yasuda H, Kikkawa R, Shigeta Y (1996) Tolrestat improves nerve regeneration after crush injury in streptozocin‐induced diabetic rats. Metabolism 45(10):1189–1195. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b196] 196. Terenghi G, Mann D, Kopelman PG, Anand P. (1997) trkA and trkC expression is increased in human diabetic skin. Neurosci Lett 228(1):33–36. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b197] 197. Tesfamariam B, Palacino JJ, Weisbrod RM, Cohen RA. (1993) Aldose reductase inhibition restores endothelial cell function in diabetic rabbit aorta. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 21(2):205–211. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b198] 198. Tesfaye S, Harris N, Jakubowski JJ, Mody C, Wilson RM, Rennie IG, et al. (1998) Impaired blood flow and arteri‐ovenous shunting in human diabetic neuropathy: a novel technique of nerve photography and fluorescein angiography. Diabetologia 36:1266–1274. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b199] 199. Tesfaye S, Malik R, Ward JD. (1994) Vascular factors in diabetic neuropathy. Diabetologia 37(9):847–854. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b200] 200. Theriault M, Dort JC, Sutherland G, Zochodne DW. (1997) Local human sural nerve blood flow in diabetic and other polyneuropathies. Brain 120:1131–1138. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b201] 201. Theriault M, Dort JC, Sutherland G, Zochodne DW. (1998) A prospective quantitative study of sensory deficits following whole sural nerve biopsies in diabetic and nondiabetic patients; surgical approach and the role of collateral sprouting. Neurology 50:480–484. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b202] 202. Thomas PK, Lascelles RG. (1965) Schwann cell abnormalities in diabetic neuropathy. Lancet 1:1355–1356. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b203] 203. Thomas PK, Lascelles RG. (1966) The pathology of diabetic neuropathy. Q J Med 35:489–509. [Google Scholar]

[b204] 204. Thomas PK, Wright DW, Tzebelikos E. (1984) Amino acid uptake by dorsal root ganglia from streptozotocin‐diabetic rats. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 47(9):912–916. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b205] 205. Tilton RG, Chang K, Hasan KS, Smith SR, Petrash JM, Misko TP, Moore WM, Currie MG, Corbett JA, McDaniel ML. (1993) Prevention of diabetic vascular dysfunction by guanidines. Inhibition of nitric oxide synthase versus advanced glycation end‐product formation. Diabetes 42(2):221–232. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b206] 206. Timperley WR, Boulton AJ, Davies‐Jones GA, Jarratt JA, Ward JD. (1985) Small vessel disease in progressive diabetic neuropathy associated with good metabolic control. J Clin Pathol 38(9): 1030–1038. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b207] 207. Tolins JP, Shultz PJ, Raij L, Brown DM, Mauer SM. (1993) Abnormal renal hemodynamic response to reduced renal perfusion pressure in diabetic rats: role of NO. Am J Physiol 265(6 Pt 2):F886–95. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b208] 208. Tomlinson DR, Fernyhough P, Diemel LT (1997) Role of neurotrophins in diabetic neuropathy and treatment with nerve growth factors. Diabetes 46(Supp 2):S43–S49. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b209] 209. Triban C, Guidolin D, Fabris M, Marini P, Schiavinato A, Dona M, Bortolami MC, Di Giamberardino L, Fiori MG. (1989) Ganglioside treatment and improved axonal regeneration capacity in experimental diabetic neuropathy. Diabetes 38(8):1012–1022. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b210] 210. Trojaborg W (1996) The electrophysiologic profile of diabetic neuropathy. Semin Neurol 16(2):123–128. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b211] 211. Tuck RR, Schmelzer JD, Low PA. (1984) Endoneurial blood flow and oxygen tension in the sciatic nerves of rats with experimental diabetic neuropathy. Brain 107(Pt 3): 935–950. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b212] 212. Verge VM, Tetzlaff W, Bisby MA, Richardson PM. (1990) Influence of nerve growth factor on neurofilament gene expression in mature primary sensory neurons. J Neurosci 10(6):2018–2025. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b213] 213. Verge VMK, Merlio J‐P, Grondin J, Ernfors P, Persson H, Riopelle RJ, Hokfelt T, Richardson PM. (1992) Colocalization of NGF binding sites, trk mRNA, and low‐affinity NGF receptor mRNA in primary sensory neurons: responses to injury and infusion of NGF. J Neurosci 12(10):4011–4022. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b214] 214. Verge VMK, Richardson PM, Benoit R, Riopelle RJ. (1989) Histochemical characterization of sensory neurons with high‐affinity receptors for nerve growth factor. J Neurocytol 18:583–591. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b215] 215. Verge VMK, Richardson PM, Wiesenfeld‐Hallin Z, Hokfelt T. (1995) Differential influence of nerve growth factor on neuropeptide expression in vivo: a novel role in peptide suppression in adult sensory neurons. J Neurosci 15(3):2081–2096. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b216] 216. Vinik AI, Holland MT, Le Beau JM, Liuzzi FJ, Stansberry KB, Colen LB. (1992) Diabetic neuropathies. Diabetes Care 15(12): 1926–1975. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b217] 217. Vlassara H, Bucala R, Striker L. (1994) Pathogenic effects of advanced glycosylation: biochemical, biologic, and clinical implications for diabetes and aging. Lab Invest 70(2):138–151. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b218] 218. Walmsley D, Wales JK, Wiles PG. (1989) Reduced hyperaemia following skin trauma: evidence for an impaired microvascular response to injury in the diabetic foot. Diabetologia 32(10):736–739. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b219] 219. Ward KK, Low PA, Schmelzer JD, Zochodne DW. (1989) Prostacyclin and noradrenaline in peripheral nerve of chronic experimental diabetes in rats. Brain 112(Pt 1):197–208. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b220] 220. Watkins PJ. (1973) Facial sweating after food: a new sign of diabetic autonomie neuropathy. Br Med J 1(853):583–587. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b221] 221. White RE, Carrier GO. (1988) Enhanced vascular alpha‐adrenergic neuroeffector system in diabetes: importance of calcium. Am J Physiol 255(5 Pt 2):H1036–H1042. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b222] 222. Whitworth IH, Terenghi G, Green CJ, Brown RA, Stevens E, Tomlinson DR. (1995) Targeted delivery of nerve growth factor via fibronectin conduits assists nerve regeneration in control and diabetic rats. Eur J Neurosci 7(11):2220–2225. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b223] 223. Wilbourn AJ. (1993) Diabetic neuropathies. In: Clinical electromyography Brown WF and Bolton CF. (Eds.). pp. 477–1503, Butterworth Heinemann. Toronto . [Google Scholar]

[b224] 224. Williams B, Gallacher B, Patel H, Orme C. (1997) Glucose‐induced protein kinase C activation regulates vascular permeability factor mRNA expression and peptide production by human vascular smooth muscle cells in vitro. Diabetes 46(9)A 497–1503. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b225] 225. Williams E, Timperley WR, Ward JD, Duckworth T. (1980) Electron microscopical studies of vessels in diabetic peripheral neuropathy. J Clin Pathol 33(5):462–470. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b226] 226. Williamson JR, Chang K, Frangos M, Hasan KS, Ido Y, Kawamura T, Nyengaard JR, van den Enden M, Kilo C, Tilton RG. (1993) Hyperglycemic pseudohypoxia and diabetic complications. Diabetes 42(6):801–813. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b227] 227. Williamson JR, Ostrow E, Eades D, Chang K, Allison W, Kilo C, Sherman WR. (1990) Glucose‐induced microvascular functional changes in nondiabetic rats are stereospecific and are prevented by an aldose reductase inhibitor. J Clin Invest 85(4): 1167–1172. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b228] 228. Wu L, Mustoe TA. (1995) Effect of ischemia on growth factor enhancement of incisional wound healing. Surgery 117(5):570–576. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b229] 229. Yagihashi S. (1995) Pathology and pathogenetic mechanisms of diabetic neuropathy. Diabetes Metab Rev 11(3):193–225. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b230] 230. Yagihashi S, Kamijo M, Baba M, Yagihashi N, Nagai K. (1992) Effect of aminoguanidine on functional and structural abnormalities in peripheral nerve of STZ‐induced diabetic rats. Diabetes 41 (1):47–52. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b231] 231. Yagihashi S, Kamijo M, Watanabe K. (1990) Reduced myelinated fiber size correlates with loss of axonal neurofilaments in peripheral nerve of chronically streptozotocin diabetic rats. Am J Pathol 136(6):1365–1373. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b232] 232. Yasuda H, Dyck PJ. (1987) Abnormalities of endoneurial microvessels and sural nerve pathology in diabetic neuropathy. Neurology 37(1):20–28. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b233] 233. Yasuda H, Sonobe M, Yamashita M, Terada M, Hatanaka I, Huitian Z, Shigeta Y (1989) Effect of prostaglandin E1 analogue TFC 612 on diabetic neuropathy in streptozocin‐induced diabetic rats. Comparison with aldose reductase inhibitor ONO 2235. Diabetes 38(7):832–838. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b234] 234. Younger DS, Rosoklija G, Hays AP, Trojaborg W, Latov N. (1996) Diabetic peripheral neuropathy: a clinicopathologic and immunohistochemical analysis of sural nerve biopsies. Muscle Nerve 19(6):722–727. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b235] 235. Zenon GJ, 3d , Abobo CV, Carter BL, Ball DW. (1990) Potential use of aldose reductase inhibitors to prevent diabetic complications. Clin Pharm 9(6):446–457. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b236] 236. Ziegler D, Hanefeld M, Ruhnau KJ, Meissner HP, Lobisch M, Schutte K, Gries FA. (1995) Treatment of symptomatic diabetic peripheral neuropathy with the anti‐oxidant alphalipoic acid. A 3‐week multicentre randomized controlled trial (ALADIN Study). Diabetologia 38(12):1425–1433. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b237] 237. Zochodne DW. (1996) Is early diabetic neuropathy a disorder of the dorsal root ganglion? A hypothesis and critique of some current ideas on the etiology of diabetic neuropathy. JPNS 1 (2):1–12. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b238] 238. Zochodne DW. (1996) Neurotrophins and other growth factors in diabetic neuropathy. Semin Neurol 16(2):153–161. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b239] 239. Zochodne DW, Allison JA, Ho W, Ho LT, Hargreaves K, Sharkey KA. (1995) Evidence for CGRP accumulation and activity in experimental neuromas. Am J Physiol 268(2 Pt 2):H584–H590. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b240] 240. Zochodne DW, Cheng C, Sun H. (1996) Diabetes increases sciatic nerve susceptibility to endothelin‐induced ischemia. Diabetes 45(5):627–632. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b241] 241. Zochodne DW, Ho LT. (1990) Endoneurial microenvironment and acute nerve crush injury in the rat sciatic nerve. Brain Res 535(1):43–48. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b242] 242. Zochodne DW, Ho LT. (1991) Unique microvascular characteristics of the dorsal root ganglion in the rat. Brain Res 559(1):89–93. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b243] 243. Zochodne DW, Ho LT. (1992) Hyperemia of injured peripheral nerve: sensitivity to CGRP antagonism. Brain Res 598(1–2):59–66. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b244] 244. Zochodne DW, Ho LT. (1992) The influence of indomethacin and guanethidine on experimental streptozotocin diabetic neuropathy. Can J Neurol Sci 19(4):433–441. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b245] 245. Zochodne DW, Ho LT. (1992) Normal blood flow but lower oxygen tension in diabetes of young rats: microenvironment and the influence of sympathectomy. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 70(5):651–659. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b246] 246. Zochodne DW, Ho LT. (1993) Diabetes mellitus prevents capsaicin from inducing hyperaemia in the rat sciatic nerve. Diabetologia 36(6):493–496. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b247] 247. Zochodne DW, Ho LT. (1994) The influence of sulindac on experimental streptozotocin‐induced diabetic neuropathy. Can J Neurol Sci 21 (3): 194–202. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b248] 248. Zochodne DW, Ho LT. (1994) Neonatal guanethidine treatment alters endoneurial but not dorsal root ganglion perfusion in the rat. Brain Res 649(1–2):147–150. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b249] 249. Zochodne DW, Ho LT, Allison JA. (1994) Dorsal root ganglia microenvironment of female BB Wistar diabetic rats with mild neuropathy. Can J Neurol Sci 127(1):36–42. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b250] 250. Zochodne DW, Ho LT, Gross PM. (1992) Acute endoneurial ischemia induced by epineurial endothelin in the rat sciatic nerve. Am J Physiol 263(6 Pt 2):H1806–10. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b251] 251. Zochodne DW, Murray MM, van der Sloot P, Riopelle RJ. (1995) Distal tibial mononeuropathy in diabetic and non‐diabetic rats reared on wire cages: an experimental entrapment neuropathy. Brain Res 698(1–2): 130–136. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b252] 252. Zochodne DW, Nguyen C. (1997) Angiogenesis at the site of neuroma formation in transected peripheral nerve. J Anat 190:23–30. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b253] 253. Zochodne DW, Nguyen C. Endoneurial neovascularity in experimental diabetes: quantitative studies of nerve and dorsal root ganglia microvessels. [In Press) Neurology 1998. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[b254] 254. Zollman P, Sahenk Z, Low PA. (1990) The effects of hyperbaric oxygenation on fast axoplasmic transport in streptozotocin‐induced diabetes. [Abstract]. Neurology 40:(Suppl 1)123. [Google Scholar]

PERMALINK

Diabetic Neuropathies: Features and Mechanisms

Douglas W Zochodne

Abstract

Full Text

References

ACTIONS

PERMALINK

RESOURCES

Cite

Add to Collections

PERMALINK

Diabetic Neuropathies: Features and Mechanisms

Douglas W Zochodne

Abstract

Full Text

References

ACTIONS

PERMALINK

RESOURCES

Similar articles

Cited by other articles

Links to NCBI Databases