RETRACTED: Ghrelin Alleviates Intestinal Dysfunction in Sepsis Through the KLF4/MMP2 Regulatory Axis by Activating SIRT1

Abstract

Intestinal barrier dysfunction is an important contributor to morbidity caused by sepsis. This study investigates the molecular mechanism by which Ghrelin affects intestinal dysfunction in rat model of sepsis. A rat model of sepsis was established by cecal ligation and puncture (CLP), revealing that Ghrelin was downregulated when sepsis occurs. Increases in the levels of inflammatory factors tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin-1 (IL-1β), IL-6, gastrin, γ-H2AX and 8-OHdG was also detected in this model system, as was an overall increase in oxidative stress. Introduction of exogenous Ghrelin inhibited these increases in inflammatory response and oxidative stress, leading to a reduction of overall sepsis-induced intestinal dysfunction. Ghrelin was then shown to activate SIRT1 expression in vitro, while SIRT1 was found to co-express with KLF4, which in turn was predicted to bind to matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP2) promoter. Finally, gain- and loss-of-function experiment demonstrated that SIRT1 upregulated the expression of KLF4 to downregulate MMP2. Collectively, Ghrelin inhibits the oxidative stress and intestinal dysfunction to attenuate sepsis by activating SIRT1 and regulating a KLF4/MMP2 regulatory axis.

Introduction

Sepsis is known as a kind of infection-induced syndrome characterized by pathologic, physiologic, and biochemical abnormalities (1). Early stages of sepsis are often characterized by excessive production of inflammatory mediators, while immunosuppression occurs when the disease progresses to a chronic severe stage (2). Sepsis has an incidence of at least 19 million cases each year and a mortality rate of approximately 25%, with the gut being critically affected throughout disease progression (3). Sepsis can result in not only intestinal hyperpermeability but also epithelial apoptosis (4). Furthermore, intestinal barrier dysfunction has been highlighted as an important contributor to morbidity related to sepsis (5). Identification of targets for the attenuation of intestinal dysfunction in sepsis is therefore of significant therapeutic interest.

Ghrelin is a type of octanoylated 28-residue peptide and has a wide range of physiological functions (6). As previously reported, orexigenic hormone Ghrelin alleviates gut barrier dysfunction in a rat model of sepsis (7). Intriguingly, an interaction between Ghrelin and Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) has been identified in mice with renal injury (8). Activation of SIRT1 induced by Cx43 inhibition has been found to alleviate intestinal injury induced by sepsis (9). Of note, a previous study revealed that SIRT1 could deacetylate and potentiate Kruppel-like factor 4 (KLF4) in ovarian cancer cells (10). KLF4 is a zinc finger-containing transcription gene of the SP/KLF family and is involved in the regulation of number of different cellular activities (11). Intriguingly, previous studies have revealed a regulatory role of KLF4 in intestinal injury induced by sepsis (12). Notably, activation of KLF4 is reported to suppress matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP2) in lung adenocarcinoma (13). It has also been shown that MMP2 is down-regulated by ulinastatin, which is widely utilized for treatment of sepsis (14). Hence, MMP2 may act as a key regulator in the pathogenesis of sepsis. Considering all the above findings, we proposed a hypothesis that Ghrelin can regulate the development of intestinal dysfunction induced by sepsis by regulating SIRT1, with the involvement of the KLF4/MMP2 regulatory axis.

Materials and Methods

Ethical Approval

The present study had been approved by the ethics committee of the First Hospital of Lanzhou University (Animal Welfare protocol No. 202001018). The animal experiments strictly obeyed the guidelines for the care and use of laboratory animals issued by the National Institutes of Health.

Animal Model Establishment

A total of 48 male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats (weighing 200 ± 20 g) provided by Experimental Animal Center of Lanzhou University Medical College were raised in separate cages, with free access to food and water. The rats were randomly grouped: 12 rats were fed a normal diet until the sampling as normal control group; 12 rats were selected as sham-operated group (abdominal cavity was immediately opened and sutured without ligation and puncture); the remaining rats were subjected to abdominal infection by cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) to induce a rat model of sepsis as previously described (15). In details, the rats were anesthetized by intraperitoneal injection of 2% ketamine hydrochloride (40 mg/kg), fixed in supine position, and their hair on the neck and abdomen was shaved, followed by disinfection with 0.1% benzalkonium bromide. A 4 cm incision was made along the midline of the abdomen. The abdominal cavity was opened. For sham-operated rats, the abdominal cavity was closed immediately without ligation or perforation. For test rats, the cecum was identified, and the cecum mesentery and the root of the cecum were cut to avoid damage to the ileum and mesenteric vessels caused by ligation. Next, three punctures were made on the cecum using a 21-gauge needle. The surface of the cecum was squeezed until folds appeared, followed by ligation and suture. In the CLP (n = 12), the rats were administered with 40 mL/kg Ringer’s solution immediately after operation. Ghrelin group (n = 12): 30 minutes after operation, the rats were administered with Ghrelin at the dosage of 20 μg/kg, i.v (16, 17). After 12 d, the mortality rate of rats in the CLP group was about 75%. In this experiment, none of the animals received antibiotics. Three rats were used for each experiment. Next, 4 mL venous blood, 30-50 mg hypothalamus and gastric fundus tissues, 15 cm small intestine (5 cm for each segment; fluorescence microscopy, protein extraction and functional detection were performed on the three segments, respectively) were collected. The samples were centrifuged at 3000 r/minute for 10 minutes at room temperature within 1 hour. The serum was collected and stored in a refrigerator at -80°C.

Sepsis is usually caused by infection and other systemic inflammatory response syndrome, accompanied by high fever, chills and other symptoms. Serious sepsis would cause great harm to the patient’s organs and circulatory function, and lead to multiple organ dysfunction. Acute gastrointestinal injury is one of the most common complications in patients with sepsis, such as gastrointestinal motility disorder, microecological balance disorder, immune function decline and gastrointestinal immune barrier involvement. Therefore, the secretion of gastric acid and gastrin was observed for model identification.

Cell Culture

Intestinal epithelial cell line Caco-2 was cultured in Dulbecco’s modified Eagles Medium (DMEM) supplemented with 5% fetal bovine serum (FBS), 100 U/mL penicillin and 100 μg/mL streptomycin at 37°C with 5% CO₂. Caco-2 cells were administered with Ghrelin at a dose of 10 nmol/mL (18).

Bioinformatic Methodology

The mouse sepsis tissue damage-related dataset GSE40180 was obtained through the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gds), including 5 normal liver tissue samples and 5 sepsis liver tissue samples. These samples were analyzed using the GEO2R function module of the GEO database to obtain the differentially expressed mRNAs of GHRL (the coding gene of Ghrelin), and the expression data of GHRL were extracted using the R language (https://www.r-project.org/) followed by construction of a box plot. We further determined the downstream genes of Ghrelin through the existing literature. MEM (https://biit.cs.ut.ee/mem/index.cgi) was adopted, where the human A-AFFY-44 dataset was selected for co-expression analysis of SIRT1 and KLF4. The promoter sequence of MMP2 was obtained from UCSC (http://genome.ucsc.edu/), and the binding sites between the two variants of KLF4 and MMP2 were analyzed using JASPAR (http://jaspar.genereg.net/).

Intestinal Permeability Test

Intestinal permeability was determined using fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-dextran (40,000kD). Briefly, the rats were administered intragastrically with FITC-dextran at the amount of 0.6 mg/g for 4 hours. Next, the peripheral blood was collected and FITC content in serum was measured using a spectrophotometer (490 nm, 535 nm).

Reverse Transcription-Quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-qPCR)

Total RNA was extracted by Trizol reagent (15596026, Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA, USA). The RNA was reversely-transcribed into complementary DNA (cDNA) PrimeScript RT reagent kit (RR047A, Takara, Otsu, Shiga, Japan) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. The synthesized complementary DNA (cDNA) was detected by RT-qPCR with a Fast SYBR Green PCR kit (Applied Biosystems, Carlsbad, CA, USA) and ABI PRISM 7300 RT-PCR system (Applied Biosystems). Three replicates were set in each well. Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) was used as the internal reference. The relative expression levels of SIRT1, KLF4 and MMP2 genes were analyzed by 2^-ΔΔCT method. The primers used are shown in Table S1 .

Western Blot Analysis

Cultured cells were collected by trypsinization, and then lysed with enhanced radioimmunoprecipitation assay (RIPA) lysis buffer containing protease inhibitor (Boster, Wuhan, China), and then the protein concentration was determined by bicinchoninic acid (BCA) protein quantitative kit (Boster). The protein was separated by 10% sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, transferred to a polyvinylidene fluoride membrane and blocked with 5% bovine serum albumin at room temperature. Then diluted primary rabbit antibodies (SIRT1, ab220807; KLF4, ab106629; MMP2, ab97779; β-actin, ab8227; 1: 500; Abcam, Cambridge, MA, USA) were added into the membrane, followed by incubation at 4°C overnight. Next, horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-labeled goat anti-rabbit secondary antibody (ab205719; 1: 2000; Abcam) was used to incubate the membrane for 1 hour at room temperature. The enhanced chemiluminescence solution (EMD Millipore, Bedford, MA, USA) was used to incubate the membrane at room temperature for 1 minute, after which it was then sealed with the plastic wrap, followed by X-ray film exposure for 5-10 minutes, development and fixation. Image J software was used to quantify the gray intensity of each band in Western blot analysis image, and β-actin was used as internal reference.

Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)

ELISA was conducted to detect the levels of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, gastrin, γ-H2AX, and 8-OHdG. TNF-α and IL-1β ELISA kits (product No. ml002859-1, ml003060-1) were purchased from Shanghai Enzyme-Linked Biotechnology Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China), and IL-6 ELISA kit (product No. PI328) was purchased from Beyotime (Shanghai, China). Gastrin secretion detection kit (product No. JL15243-48T) was purchased from Jianglai Biotechnology (Shanghai, China), γ-H2AX detection kit (product No. 4418-096-K) was from Trevigen (Gaithersburg, MD), and 8-OHdG detection kit (product No. CEA660Ge) was from Shanghai Xinyu Biotech Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China). The working solution was prepared according to the instructions, and the samples were diluted according to a certain proportion. Next, 50 μL standard sample and diluted test sample were added to the enzyme microplate for reaction. Afterwards, 100 μL enzyme labeled reagent was added to each well, and then incubated for 30 minutes. Next, 50 μL A and B substrates were added to each well, and incubated for 15 minutes at 37°C in the dark, and finally the reaction was terminated with 50 μL stopping solution. Optical density (OD) values were determined at 450 nm. According to the absorbance value of the sample, the corresponding concentration was found in the coordinate, and the final concentration of the sample was calculated by multiplying the dilution degree.

Gastric Acid Secretion Detection

The rats were injected with normal saline via the esophagus using a syringe at 38°C, and then the gastric cavity was lavaged until the outflow was clear without residue. The wound was covered with gauze dipped in warm saline. After 2 hours, the gastric cavity was lavaged with 5 mL of normal saline for 3 consecutive times, 2 min each time, and the eluate was collected in a conical flask. Using phenolphthalein as an indicator, the collected gastric fluid samples were titrated with 0.01 mol·L-1 NaOH solution each time. The amount of NaOH used to neutralize gastric acid (L× mol NaOH) was converted into μmol·(L·2 min)^-1, which was expressed as the level of secreted gastric acid.

Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E) Staining

After the rats were euthanized, the left ventricle was perfused with phosphate buffered saline (PBS), followed by fixation with 4% paraformaldehyde. Next, the small intestine tissues were stripped, and paraffin embedded. Paraffin sections were dewaxed to water, toluene, xylene, gradient ethanol each for 5 minutes, and then washed under running water for 5 minutes. H&E staining was performed for 3 minutes, followed by 1% hydrochloric acid ethanol (75%) differentiation for 30 seconds, reaction with 0.25% ammonia to return to blue for 1 minute, and treatment with 75% ethanol, 0.5% Eosin Y ethanol, 85% ethanol, 95% ethanol, anhydrous ethanol, xylene carbonate, xylene I, II, II, each for 1 minute. Finally, the sections were mounted with gum.

Immunohistochemistry

Paraffin sections of tissue samples were taken, dewaxed with water, dehydrated with gradient alcohol, washed in 3% methanol H₂O₂ for 20 minutes, and rinsed with distilled water for 2 minutes and then with 0.1 M PBS for 3 minutes. Following water bath repair in antigen repair solution, the sections were cooled down with water. Normal goat serum blocking solution (C-0005, Shanghai Haoran Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China) was dripped on the tissue slices for incubation at room temperature for 20 minutes. Primary antibody rabbit anti-rat against Ghrelin (ab209790, 1: 200; Abcam) was added to the sections for overnight incubation at 4°C. The sections were added with the secondary antibody goat anti-rabbit against immunoglobulin G (IgG) (ab6785, 1: 1000, Abcam), followed by reaction at 37°C for 20 minutes. Next, the sections were incubated with HRP-labeled streptomyces ovalbumin working solution (0343-10000U, Imunbio, Beijing, China) at 37°C for 20 minutes. Diaminobenzidine (ST033, Guangzhou Whiga Technology Co., Ltd., Guangzhou, China) was used for color development, followed by counterstaining with hematoxylin (PT001, purchased from Shanghai Bogoo Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China) for 1 minute. Next, the sections were treated with 1% ammonia water, dehydrated with a certain concentration of gradient alcohol, cleared with xylene and sealed with neutral resin. The sections were then observed under a microscope and imaged with 5 high-power visual fields randomly selected from each section (100 cell/field). Staining was scored independently by two observers according to the intensity and percentage of positive cells. The staining intensity was graded according to 4 grades: 0 (no staining), 1 (slight staining), 2 (moderate staining) or 3 (severe staining). The products (percentage of positive cells and respective intensity fraction) were used as final staining scores (minimum value was 0, maximum value was 300).

Assessment of Oxidative Stress

The expression of malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and nitric oxide synthase (NOS) in the small intestine of rats were detected by colorimetry. The kits were purchased from Nanjing Jiancheng Bioengineering Institute (Nanjing, China). According to the manufacturer’s instructions, MDA was determined by thiobarbituric acid condensation method, SOD by xanthine oxidase method and NOS by nitrate reductase method.

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation (ChIP) Assay

The enrichment of KLF4 in the promoter region of MMP2 was assessed by ChIP kit (Millipore). Briefly, the culture medium of isolated rat small intestine tissues was added with 1% formaldehyde, and the tissues were fixed for 10 minutes at room temperature to crosslink the DNA and protein in the cells. Then, the cells were randomly broken by ultrasonication. Each time, the cells were ultrasonically treated for 10 seconds (with an interval of 10 seconds, for 15 cycles) to break into fragments of appropriate size. After the cells were centrifugated at 4°C and 13000 rpm, the supernatant was collected. The supernatant was added with the NC IgG antibody (ab6728, 1: 30, Abcam) and the target protein specific antibody KLF4 (ab106629, 1: 30, Abcam) for overnight incubation at 4°C, respectively. The endogenous DNA-protein complex was precipitated by the protein Agarose/Sepharose. After a short time of centrifugation, the supernatant was removed, the nonspecific complex was washed, and the de-crosslinking was performed overnight at 65°C. The DNA fragments were extracted and purified by phenol/chloroform. followed by the detection of the binding of KLF4 with MMP2 promoter.

Statistical Analysis

All experimental data were analyzed using SPSS 21.0 statistical software (IBM, Armonk, NY, USA). Each experiment was repeated three times. The measurement data is displayed as mean ± standard deviation. The two groups of data conforming to the normal distribution were compared using unpaired t test. Data comparison between multiple groups was performed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by Tukey’s post hoc test. p < 0.05 indicated that the difference was statistically significant.

Results

Ghrelin Is Downregulated in Small Intestine of CLP Rats

Ghrelin has been reported to alleviate gut barrier dysfunction in a rat model of sepsis (7). Differential analysis on GSE40180 dataset demonstrated that GHRL, the coding gene of Ghrelin, is down-regulated in liver tissues from sepsis cases ( Figure 1A ). We therefore speculated that the expression of Ghrelin was down-regulated in sepsis. In order to test this, we created a rat model of sepsis. The results of H&E staining showed no significant change in the structure of small intestinal membrane, with well-arranged microvilli of small intestine being clearly visible in control and sepsis conditions. However, the rats operated with CLP exhibited disorder, shortening and shedding of intestinal trichostatin and mucosal edema, with inflammatory cell infiltration, capillary hemorrhage and ulceration formation ( Figure 1B ). Immunohistochemistry results showed that, compared with the normal rats, the staining area of Ghrelin in the small intestine of CLP-operated rats decreased ( Figure 1C ). Overall, the expression of Ghrelin was downregulated in the small intestine of CLP-operated rats.

Figure 1.

Ghrelin is downregulated in small intestine of CLP rats. (A), The box diagram indicates GHRL expression in normal liver tissues (blue box) and liver tissues of CLP sepsis model (red box) in the GSE40180 dataset. (B), The pathological changes of small intestine after H&E staining (×200). (C), Immunohistochemical detection of Ghrelin expression in small intestinal tissues (×200). *p < 0.05 vs. normal group. The measurement data were expressed as mean ± standard deviation. The independent sample t-test was used to compare data between two group.

Exogenous Ghrelin Inhibits Oxidative Stress and Intestinal Dysfunction In Vivo

Ghrelin has been reported to aid in the alleviation of the inflammatory response and organ injury in CLP-induced polymicrobial sepsis and could therefore be a promising therapeutic target for the treatment of sepsis (19). Ghrelin can activate growth hormone secretagogue receptors (GHS-R) on vagal afferent nerve terminals to stimulate the motility of antrum and duodenum; Y2 and/or Y4 receptors in the brain potentially modulate the action of Ghrelin (20). Western blot analysis and RT-qPCR results showed that Ghrelin expression in small intestine of CLP group was lower than that in normal or sham groups, and Ghrelin expression was higher in small intestine tissues of Ghrelin group compared with CLP group ( Figures 2A, B ). H&E staining revealed that disorder, shortening and shedding of intestinal trichostatin, mucosal edema, infiltration of inflammatory cells, capillary hemorrhage and ulceration were observed in the CLP group. In contrast, the rats in Ghrelin group exhibited partial shedding of intestinal epithelial villi, edema of dot membrane and congestion of capillary. Immunohistochemistry results showed that compared with CLP group, the positive staining area of Ghrelin protein was increased in small intestine of Ghrelin group ( Figure 2C ). ELISA results indicated that compared with normal group, the levels of inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 were increased in CLP group; compared with CLP group, the levels of TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 were lower in Ghrelin group ( Figures 2D–F ). Oxidative stress assays examining ROS release revealed that compared with the normal or sham group, the levels of SOD and NOS were decreased, while the level of MDA was increased in the CLP group. Compared with the CLP group, the levels of SOD and NOS were increased, and the level of MDA was decreased in the Ghrelin group ( Figures 2G–I ). The expression of DNA damage markers γ-H2AX and 8-OHdG was detected by ELISA, and the results showed that compared with the normal group, the γ-H2AX and 8-OHdG levels potently increased in the CLP group. Compared with the CLP group, the levels of γ-H2AX and 8-OHdG were significantly reduced in the Ghrelin group ( Figures 2J, K ). The FITC-dextran assay was performed to test the intestinal permeability of rats. The results showed that the FITC content of the CLP group was strikingly upregulated compared with normal group. Compared with the CLP group, the FITC content was significantly reduced in the Ghrelin group, suggesting that the intestinal permeability of rats was improved by Ghrelin ( Figure 2L ).These results suggest that exogenous administration of Ghrelin can significantly attenuate the intestinal dysfunction in sepsis.

Figure 2.

Exogenous Ghrelin inhibits the occurrence of intestinal dysfunction in sepsis. (A), Ghrelin expression in small intestine as examined by Western blot analysis. (B), Detection of Ghrelin expression in small intestine by RT-qPCR. (C), H&E staining and immunohistochemical staining for Ghrelin protein detection of small intestine (×200). (D), Detection of TNF-α protein level by ELISA. (E), Detection of IL-1β protein level by ELISA. (F), Detection of IL-6 protein level by ELISA. (G), Detection of MDA level in small intestine. (H), Detection of SOD level in small intestine tissue. (I), Detection of NOS level in small intestine tissues. (J), Detection of γ-H2AX protein level in small intestine tissues. (K), Detection of 8-OHdG protein level in small intestinal tissues. (L), Detection of small intestinal permeability. ^* p < 0.05 vs. normal or sham group. ^# p < 0.05 vs. CLP group. The measurement data were expressed as mean ± standard deviation. One-way ANOVA was used for the comparison among multiple groups, followed by Tukey’s post hoc tests.

Ghrelin Activates SIRT1 Expression in CLP

Activation of Ghrelin has been reported to increase the expression of SIRT1 in rats (21). To further examine the activation of SIRT1 by Ghrelin in murine tubular epithelial cell line Caco-2, western blot analysis was performed, which demonstrated that the protein expression of Ghrelin and SIRT1 in Ghrelin group was higher than that in CLP Group ( Figure 3A ). RT-qPCR also revealed that Ghrelin and SIRT1 expression in Ghrelin group was higher than that in CLP Group ( Figure 3B ). These results suggest that Ghrelin directly activates SIRT1 expression in large intestine.

Figure 3.

Ghrelin activates SIRT1 expression. (A), Western blot analysis detection of Ghrelin and SIRT1 protein expression in Caco-2 cells. (B), RT-qPCR detection of Ghrelin and SIRT1 expression in Caco-2 cells. ^* p < 0.05 vs. CLP group. The measurement data were expressed as mean ± standard deviation. The independent sample t-test was used to compare data between two group.

SIRT1 Downregulates MMP2 Expression Through Upregulation of KLF4 Expression in Sepsis

Our MEM analysis showed that SIRT1 and KLF4 were significantly co-expressed ( Figure 4A ). Next, we used Jaspar software to predict probable binding sites of KLF4, identifying multiple binding sites in MMP2 promoter region ( Figure 4B ). To verify this relationship between KLF4 and MMP2, we overexpressed MMP2 in Caco-2 cells. The results of RT-qPCR and Western blot analysis showed that, compared with oe-NC group, the expression of MMP2 was significantly lower in the oe-KLF4 group, while the expression of KLF4 did not change in the oe-MMP2 group ( Figures 4C, D ). These results suggest that KLF4 negatively regulates the expression of MMP2 in sepsis.

Figure 4.

SIRT1 regulates KLF4/MMP2 in sepsis. (A), The co-expression of SIRT1 and KLF4 analyzed by MEM. (B), The binding sites of KLF4 and MMP2 promoter regions predicted in JASPAR website. (C), The expression of KLF4 and MMP2 measured by Western blot analysis. (D), The expression of KLF4 and MMP2 determined by RT-qPCR. (E), The expression of SIRT1, KLF4 and MMP2 determined by RT-qPCR. (F), The expression of SIRT1, KLF4 and MMP2 determined by RT-qPCR. ^* p < 0.05 vs. oe-NC or sh-NC group. ^# p < 0.05 vs. sh-SIRT1-1 group. The measurement data were expressed as mean ± standard deviation. One-way ANOVA was used for the comparison among multiple groups, followed by Tukey’s post hoc tests.

In order to verify the effect of SIRT1 on the expression of KLF4 and MMP2, we overexpressed SIRT1 alone or overexpressed simultaneously with MMP2 in Caco-2 cells. RT-qPCR results showed that compared with oe-NC group, the expression of SIRT1 and KLF4 was significantly increased, while the expression of MMP2 was decreased in the oe-SIRT1 group ( Figure 4E ). Additionally, the expression of KLF4 and MMP2 was significantly increased, but the expression of SIRT1 was not significantly changed in oe-KLF4 + oe-MMP2 group ( Figure 4E ). Next, we overexpressed MMP2 in SIRT1-deficent Caco-2 cells. Relative to sh-NC group, sh-SIRT1-1 and sh-SIRT1-2 groups exhibited significantly decreased expression of SIRT1 and KLF4 and increased expression of MMP2. Versus sh-SIRT1-1 group, sh-SIRT1-1 + oe-MMP2 group had significantly increased MMP2 expression, while the expression of SIRT1 and KLF4 remained unchanged ( Figure 4F ). These results indicate that SIRT1 promotes KLF4 to inhibit MMP2 expression in sepsis.

Ghrelin Regulates a KLF4/MMP2 Regulatory Axis by Activating SIRT1 and Attenuates Intestinal Dysfunction in Sepsis

In order to verify these findings in vivo and determine whether Ghrelin affects the occurrence of intestinal dysfunction in sepsis via a SIRT1/KLF4/MMP2 regulatory axis, we blocked SIRT1 activity in the presence of Ghrelin. Western blot analysis and RT-qPCR results showed that compared with CLP group the expression of SIRT1 and KLF4 was increased, and the expression of MMP2 was decreased in Ghrelin group. Importantly, whereas there was no significant change in the Ghrelin + SIRT1 inhibitor group ( Figures 5A, B ). The results of gastric acid detection revealed that compared with CLP Group, the gastrin and accumulated gastric acid were increased in the Ghrelin group, while the gastrin and accumulated gastric acid were reduced in the Ghrelin + SIRT1 inhibitor group compared with Ghrelin group ( Figures 5C, D ). These results suggest that Ghrelin can regulate the KLF4/MMP2 axis by activating SIRT1 and attenuate the occurrence of intestinal dysfunction in sepsis.

Figure 5.

Ghrelin regulates KLF4/MMP2 axis by activating SIRT1 and affects intestinal dysfunction in sepsis. (A), Western blot analysis of the expression of SIRT1, KLF4 and MMP2. (B), The expression of SIRT1, KLF4 and MMP2 determined by RT-qPCR. (C), Gastrin secretion in each group. (D), The accumulated gastric acid secretion. ^* p < 0.05 vs. CLP group. The measurement data were expressed as mean ± standard deviation. One-way ANOVA was used for the comparison among multiple groups, followed by Tukey’s post hoc tests.

Discussion

Sepsis is a serious pathological condition related to systemic or intestinal inflammation, as well as gastrointestinal barrier dysfunction (22). In the current study, we explored the regulatory mechanism of Ghrelin in sepsis-induced intestinal dysfunction. We clearly showed that Ghrelin could upregulates KLF4 expression to inhibit MMP2 levels by activating SIRT1, a process which could alleviate the intestinal dysfunction and thereby reduce sepsis severity.

Initially, we discovered that Ghrelin was downregulated in the intestinal tract of sepsis cases and demonstrated that Ghrelin inhibited intestinal dysfunction in rat model of sepsis. This is conducive with previous publications which revealed that Ghrelin can produce anti-bacterial activity while inhibiting the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and restoring gut barrier function, and can exert beneficial actions to prevent mortality from sepsis (23). Moreover, another study has reported that Ghrelin exerted suppressive effect against sepsis-induced inflammation through regulating mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase-1 (MKP-1) (24). Though this mechanism, Ghrelin can aid in alleviating the inflammatory response and organ injury in CLP-induced polymicrobial sepsis (19). Moreover, Ghrelin and Ghrelin agonists have been highlighted as potential approaches to inhibit inflammation, gastrointestinal motility and sensitivity in the gastrointestinal tract, which could attenuate the occurrence of multiple organ failure induced by sepsis (25). Activation of the ghrelin receptor also suppresses the expression of proinflammatory factors and increases survival in different inflammatory disease models (26, 27). Besides, Ghrelin treatment contributed to the reduction in inflammatory factors TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 triggered by LPS during endotoxemia (28). Moreover, exogenous Ghrelin attenuates oxidative stress evidenced by up-regulated SOD, NOS and down-regulated MDA. Supportably, agmatine reduces MDA and increases SOD content to attenuate the sepsis-provoked vascular dysfunction by inhibiting iNOS expression and oxidative stress (29).

Another important finding was that Ghrelin could regulate intestinal function via activation of SIRT1 signaling. Intriguingly, an increasing number of studies have shown that there is a regulatory relationship between Ghrelin and SIRT1 in a wide range of different diseases. For example, expression of Ghrelin could up-regulate SIRT1 in the course of autophagy induction in lymphoblastic leukemia cells (30). Moreover, Ghrelin could mediate the GHSR-1α/AMPK/SIRT1/PGC-1α/UCP2 signaling pathway to diminish oxidative stress injury as well as neuronal apoptosis post neonatal hypoxia-ischemia injury (31). In this process, UCP2, an inner-membrane mitochondrial protein transcriptional regulated by PGC-1α, can reduce the production of ROS and diminish the mitochondrial ROS (32, 33). Importantly, we further found in the current study that SIRT1 could positively targets KLF4 expression and that up-regulation of SIRT1 or KLF4 was correlated with attenuated intestinal dysfunction in sepsis. Strikingly, SIRT1 has been unveiled to inhibit the Notch signaling via NICD deacetylation, thereby ameliorating LPS-induced sepsis in a rat model (34). Downregulation of SIRT1 could promote sepsis-induced myocardial injury (35). Moreover, activated SIRT1 induced by decreased Cx43 could contribute to the alleviation in intestinal injury induced by sepsis (9). Intriguingly, SIRT1 was revealed to negatively modulate KLF4 in human brain microvascular endothelial cells (36). Additionally, it was found that SIRT1 could increase KLF4 in ovarian cancer cells (10). Of note, KLF4 is considered to be an anti-tumor gene in the intestinal tract (37). Finally, inhibition of KLF4 has been found to be implicated in the progression of sepsis-induced intestinal injury (12).

Another important finding obtained in this study was that activated KLF4 inhibited MMP2 expression in sepsis to alleviate sepsis-induced intestinal dysfunction. Notably, an interaction between KLF4 and MMP2 has been previously discovered. For example, up-regulation of KLF4 was found to reduce the expression of MMP2 in papillary thyroid cancer cells (38). To our acknowledge, the involvement of MMP2 in sepsis and intestinal dysfunction has been previously identified. Inhibition of LPS-induced MMP2 by IL-35 pretreatment could aid in attenuation of cardiac inflammation, apoptosis, as well as fibrotic reactions in sepsis-related cardiac injury (39). Moreover, it was found that activated JNK/MMP2 signaling could lead to intestinal barrier dysfunction in a Drosophila intestinal tumor model (40).

Based on the results obtained in the current study, we conclude that Ghrelin activates SIRT1 to regulate a KLF4/MMP2 regulatory axis, thereby attenuating intestinal dysfunction in the rat model of sepsis (summarized in Figure 6 ). Our findings may provide a novel direction for treatment of sepsis-induced intestinal dysfunction. However, further study is needed for investigating other pathways involved in the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines in response to Ghrelin administration.

Figure 6.

Schematic summarizing the identified mechanism by which Ghrelin acts in sepsis-induced intestinal dysfunction. Ghrelin upregulates KLF4 expression to inhibit MMP2 level by activating SIRT1, which can alleviate the intestinal dysfunction and thereby attenuate sepsis.

Data Availability Statement

The datasets presented in this study can be found in online repositories. The names of the repository/repositories and accession number(s) can be found in the article/ Supplementary Material .

Ethics Statement

The animal study was reviewed and approved by the First Hospital of Lanzhou University.

Author Contributions

BL and LZha designed the study. LZhu and YC collated the data, carried out data analyses, and produced the initial draft of the manuscript. ZD and QY contributed to drafting the manuscript. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Supplementary Material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2021.646775/full#supplementary-material