Skip to main content
PMC home page
Brain and Behavior logoLink to Brain and Behavior
. 2021 Apr 3;11(5):e02138. doi: 10.1002/brb3.2138

A mediating role for mental health in associations between COVID‐19‐related self‐stigma, PTSD, quality of life, and insomnia among patients recovered from COVID‐19

Hosein Mahmoudi 1, Mohsen Saffari 2,3, Mahmoud Movahedi 4, Hormoz Sanaeinasab 2,3, Hojat Rashidi‐Jahan 2, Morteza Pourgholami 5, Ali Poorebrahim 11, Jalal Barshan 6, Milad Ghiami 7, Saman Khoshmanesh 8, Marc N Potenza 9, Chung‐Ying Lin 10,✉, Amir H Pakpour 11,12,✉
PMCID: PMC8119851  PMID: 33811451

Abstract

Introduction

Patients with COVID‐19 often suffer from psychological problems such as post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and self‐stigmatization that may negatively impact their quality of life and sleep. This study examined mental health as a potential mediating factor linking self‐stigmatization and PTSD to quality of life and sleep.

Methods

Using a cross‐sectional design, 844 people who had recovered from COVID‐19 were called and interviewed. Data were collected using structured scales. Structural equation modeling was applied to assess fitness of a mediation model including self‐stigma and PTSD as independent factors and quality of life and insomnia as dependent variables.

Results

Mental health, COVID‐19‐related self‐stigma, and mental quality of life were associated. Insomnia, PTSD, and COVID‐19‐related self‐stigma displayed significant direct associations (r = .334 to 0.454; p < .01). A mediation model indicated satisfactory goodness of fit (CFI = 0.968, TLI = 0.950, SRMR = 0.071, RMSEA = 0.068). Mental health as a mediator had negative relationships with COVID‐19‐related self‐stigma, PTSD, and insomnia and positive associations with quality of life.

Conclusion

Mental health may mediate effects of COVID‐19‐related self‐stigma and PTSD on quality of life and insomnia. Designing programs to improve mental health among patients with COVID‐19 may include efforts to reduce negative effects of PTSD and COVID‐19‐related self‐stigma on quality of life and insomnia.

Keywords: coronavirus, COVID‐19, quality of life, sleep disorders, stigmatization, stress

COVID‐19 may result in having post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and self‐stigma. COVID‐19 may induce mental health problems and insomnia. Mental health mediated the association between self‐stigma and insomnia. Mental health mediated the association between PTSD and insomnia.

graphic file with name BRB3-11-e02138-g001.jpg

1. INTRODUCTION

COVID‐19 is a disease related to a novel coronavirus (SARS‐CoV‐2) that has led to a global pandemic. Given the features of rapid spread and the potential for severe respiratory symptoms, COVID‐19 may significantly impact physical health (Mohapatra et al., 2020; Wiwanitkit, 2020). This global public health issue also impacts health systems, economies, and social interactions. Many jurisdictions have implemented preventive measures such as lockdowns, spatial distancing, hand washing, and wearing of face masks (Kamenidou et al., 2020). Major efforts have emphasized limiting transmission and decreasing deaths through such public health interventions (Lahiri et al., 2020). At the time of this writing (August 12, 2020), more than 20 million people had been infected by SARS‐CoV‐2 globally (Worldometer, 2020). In Iran, a country that shortly after China began experiencing COVID‐19, between 2000 and 2500 people have been infected daily with a mortality rate of 1% to 3% (Sharifi et al., 2020).

Given the novelty of COVID‐19, precise information regarding the SARS‐CoV‐2 virus (e.g., virus transmission) is scarce, and the possibility of reinfection is not well known and under investigation (Lim, 2020). Uncertainties regarding SARS‐CoV‐2 and COVID‐19 may generate fear and insecurity, especially in vulnerable populations (Fofana et al., 2020; Reznik et al., 2020). Other factors (e.g., growing numbers of affected people, quarantines, and lockdowns) may impact psychological health, and such effects may be greater in vulnerable groups including people with preexisting conditions, older adults, children, pregnant women, and healthcare workers (Amerio et al., 2020). A recent review with a focus of COVID‐19‐related post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in healthcare workers reported that self‐blame and stigma, apart from previous mental health status, emerged as possible risk factors for PTSD (Carmassi, Foghi, et al., 2020).

During the pandemic, people (especially those with COVID‐19) may experience stress, anxiety, depression, irritability, frustration, and hopelessness (Guo et al., 2020; Serafini et al., 2020). Such mental health concerns may lead to both shorter‐ and longer‐term problems, particularly when experienced in combination with other factors such as poverty and insufficient healthcare services (Rangel et al., 2020). Data from disasters suggest emotional distress as a prevalent phenomenon in directly affected and vulnerable populations (North & Pfefferbaum, 2013).

Self‐stigma is an important factor related to mental distress during the COVID‐19 pandemic. Affected individuals may perceive themselves as being different from normal, unaffected people in terms of physical or mental abilities (Lucksted & Drapalski, 2015). People may thus classify themselves as being undesirable because of having had COVID‐19 (Bruns et al., 2020). With elevated likelihoods of self‐stigma, having had COVID‐19 may lead to social isolation, temporary unemployment, and unknown shorter‐ and longer‐term effects on health (Bruns et al., 2020; Turner‐Musa et al., 2020). Behaviors of family members, relatives, and close friends to protect individuals with COVID‐19 may exacerbate disease‐related self‐stigma (Turner‐Musa et al., 2020). People who travel from infected regions to relatively clear zones may also encounter xenophobia that may intensify self‐stigma (Cheng, 2020). Degrees of stigmatization may vary based on context and culture (Bruns et al., 2020).

Mental health concerns such as PTSD and sleep disorders are reported complications of COVID‐19 (Liu, Stevens, et al., 2020). For example, one‐fifth of 1,300 Italian participants had significant symptoms of PTSD (Castelli et al., 2020). Individuals with lower health‐related quality of life (HRQoL) were more likely to experience PTSD (Castelli et al., 2020; Liu, Stevens, et al., 2020). PTSD symptoms may relate to concerns about COVID‐19, such as infection with a potentially deadly disease and possible transmission of the disease to others (e.g., parents and children; Fekih‐Romdhane et al., 2020).

Traumatic events may negatively impact sleep quality. A recent review on sleep disorders among people locked down due to COVID‐19 in Europe indicated that individuals went to bed later and spent more time on smart phones and digital devices with poorer quality of sleep (Altena et al., 2020). Associations between stress, anxiety, and depression with sleep problems have been reported (Stanton et al., 2020). Such changes in mental health and related domains may link to reduced HRQoL, especially psychological HRQoL (Liu, Stevens, et al., 2020).

Relationships between stigmatization and PTSD with lower HRQoL and sleep problems have been identified in patients with different conditions (McCarthy et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2020). However, it is unclear how improving mental health may be effective in reducing potential negative effects of self‐stigma and PTSD on HRQoL and sleep. A mediation model can provide insight into how independent variables (self‐stigma and PTSD) may operate through a mediating factor (mental health) to influence dependent variables (HRQoL and insomnia).

Mediating roles of mental health in relationships between psychological factors and sleep problems/HRQoL have been reported (Galletta et al., 2019; Holtge et al., 2019; Pavlova et al., 2017). However, to the best of our knowledge, such investigations have never been studied among patients with COVID‐19. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to investigate whether poor mental health may mediate concerns related to infection with COVID‐19 (i.e., self‐stigma and PTSD) and outcomes such as poor sleep and HRQoL in people having recently recovered from COVID‐19.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1. Participants and procedure

A cross‐sectional study was designed to collect data from four hospitals located in Tehran, Qazvin, and Rasht cities. A convenient sampling method was used. People having been admitted to these hospitals from February to June 2020 were eligible. Patients were contacted following hospitalization for telephone interviews to gather data. Sample size was computed to find a significant association between PTSD/self‐stigma and HRQoL/insomnia with the following parameters: r = .1, α at two‐tailed = 0.05, and a type‐2 error rate at 0.2 (i.e., power = 0.8). Inclusion criteria were: ability to speak Persian, diagnosis of COVID‐19 based on polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test and chest CT scan, at least 1 month of time having passed since discharge and absence of acute signs/symptoms of disease such as coughing, dyspnea, and fever. People with chronic disease, organ dysfunction or prior history of longstanding sleep problems or severe mental disorders such as major depression or Alzheimer's disease were excluded.

2.2. Measures

2.2.1. Mental Health Inventory‐5

The Mental Health Inventory‐5 (MHI‐5), a short version of the MHI and MHI‐18, assessed mental health. The psychometric properties of the MHI‐5 were adequate (Cronbach's α = 0.775 in the present study), and the MHI‐18 has been translated into Persian with satisfactory psychometric properties (Meybodi et al., 2011). The MHI‐5 contains five items each scored along a 6‐point Likert scale with item scores ranging from 1 (all of the time) to 6 (none of the time). Higher MHI‐5 scores indicate better mental health.

2.2.2. Short Form‐8

The Short Form‐8 (SF‐8) assessed physical and mental quality of life (QoL). The SF‐8 is a short version of the SF‐36 and SF‐12. The psychometric properties of the SF‐8 were adequate (Cronbach's α = 0.894 in the present study), and the SF‐12 and SF‐36 have been translated into Persian with satisfactory psychometric properties (Pakpour et al., 2011). The SF‐8 contains eight items with one each reflecting the eight subscales in the SF‐36 (physical functioning, role limitations due to physical health problems, bodily pain, general health perceptions, vitality, social functioning, role limitations due to mental health problems, and mental health). The items are converted into a 0–100 scale using the T‐score concept (i.e., mean at 50 with an SD of 10). Two summary scores were computed to represent physical QoL (i.e., physical composite score; PCS) and mental QoL (i.e., mental composite score; MCS). A higher score in the PCS or MCS indicates better physical or mental QoL (Yiengprugsawan et al., 2014).

2.2.3. Insomnia Severity Index

The Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) assessed insomnia. The psychometric properties of the Persian ISI were adequate (Cronbach's α = 0.825 in the present study). The ISI contains seven items each scored along a 5‐point Likert scale with item scores ranging from 0 to 4. Higher ISI scores indicate more severe insomnia (Lin et al., 2020).

2.2.4. Short‐Form PTSD Checklist‐5

The Short‐Form PTSD Checklist‐5 (SF‐PCL‐5) assessed the PTSD (Zuromski et al., 2019). The psychometric properties of the Persian SF‐PCL‐5 were adequate (Cronbach's α = 0.812 in the present study). The SF‐PCL‐5 contains four items each scored along a 5‐point Likert scale with item scores ranging from 0 to 4. Higher PCL‐5 scores indicate more severe PTSD. The SF‐PCL‐5 scale was developed to predict PTSD diagnoses using the PCL‐5 ≥28 threshold. The Persian version of PCL‐5 has previously translated in Persian with acceptable psychometrics (Sadeghi et al., 2016).

2.2.5. Self‐Stigma Scale‐Short modified for COVID‐19

The Self‐Stigma Scale‐Short (SSS‐S) was modified to assess COVID‐19‐related self‐stigma. Although the SSS‐S was designed to understand self‐stigma in people with mental health concerns and immigrant and sexual‐orientation minority groups (e.g., gay, lesbian, and bisexual individuals), it has been used more widely given its structure. Specifically, the term describing the stigmatized group (e.g., with mental illness) may be replaced, and the present study used, “with COVID‐19 infection” to describe the potentially stigmatized group. The psychometric properties of the SSS‐S were adequate (Cronbach's α = 0.936 in the present study). The SSS‐S contains five items each scored along a 4‐point Likert scale with item scores ranging from 1 to 4. Higher SSS‐S scores indicate greater self‐stigma (Chang et al., 2018).

2.3. Statistical analysis

Descriptive statistics were employed to understand participants' characteristics. Means with SDs were applied to continuous variables and frequencies with percentages to categorical variables. Means and SDs were also used to identify central tendencies. Pearson correlations were calculated to assess associations.

Structural equation modeling (SEM) using full information maximum likelihood estimators was applied to examine the mediation model. The SEM was performed with bias‐corrected confidence intervals using 5,000 bootstrapping iterations. Before assessing direct and indirect effects in the mediation model, several fit indices were applied to determine whether the mediation model was supported. Apart from a nonsignificant χ 2 test, comparative fit index (CFI) >0.9, Tucker–Lewis index (TLI) >0.9, standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) <0.08, and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) with a 90% confidence interval (CI) were used to examine the model, with these thresholds indicative of a satisfactory fit (Fung et al., 2019). Direct effects of PTSD and COVID‐19‐related self‐stigma on outcomes (physical QoL, mental QoL and insomnia) were tested using t tests. Indirect effects of mental health in the association of independent variables (PTSD and COVID‐19‐related self‐stigma) and outcome variables (physical QoL, mental QoL and insomnia) were tested using a bootstrapping method. A mediation effect was considered supported if the 95% confidence intervals of the coefficients calculated from the bootstrapping samples did not cover 0. Analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS 24.0 (IBM Corp) or AMOS 24.0 (IBM Corp).

2.4. Ethical statement

The study protocol was approved by the ethics committee of Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences (IR.BMSU.REC.1399.187), and informed consent was obtained from participants at enrollment.

3. RESULTS

Among 844 participants with a mean age of 45.91 (SD = 13.40) years, approximately two‐thirds (n = 579; 68.6%) were male. Over three‐fourths (n = 660; 78.2%) were currently married and most had comorbidities (n = 704; 83.4%). The average time from discharge was 37.2 (SD = 29.4) days (Table 1).

TABLE 1.

Characteristics of the study participants (N = 844)

Mean (SD) or n (%)
Age (year) 45.91 (13.40)
Gender (male) 579 (68.6)
Marital status
Single 92 (10.9)
Married 660 (78.2)
Divorced/widowed 92 (10.9)
Educational status
Illiterate 74 (8.8)
Primary school 90 (10.7)
Secondary 282 (33.4)
University 398 (47.2)
Current Smoking status (yes) 82 (9.7)
Employment status
Employed 444 (52.6)
Unemployed 88 (10.4)
Retired 126 (14.9)
Housekeeper 132 (15.6)
Student 54 (6.4)
Comorbidity (yes) 704 (83.4)
Time from discharge (days) 37.2 (29.4)
Open in a new tab

All study variables were correlated with one another with moderate or greater magnitudes (Table 2). Correlations were in anticipated directions: MHI‐5, PCS, and MCS were positively correlated with each other (r = .388 to 0.769; p < .01); ISI, PCL‐5, and COVID‐19‐related SSS‐S were positively correlated with each other (r = .334 to 0.454; p < .01); and MHI‐5, PCS, and MCS were negatively correlated with ISI, PCL‐5, and COVID‐19‐related SSS‐S (r = −.688 to −0.376; p < .01).

TABLE 2.

Descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation matrix of the key study variables

Mean SD r
MHI−5 PCS MCS ISI SF‐PCL−5 SSS‐S
MHI−5 61.36 19.40 – .388 .585 −.480 −.547 −.417
PCS 92.94 23.09 – .769 −.439 −.532 −.376
MCS 59.66 22.90 – −.534 −.688 −.466
ISI 10.35 6.60 – .454 .334
SF‐PCL−5 5.13 3.51 – .446
SSS‐S 1.78 0.71 –
Open in a new tab

All p‐values < .01.

Abbreviations: ISI, Insomnia Severity Index; MHI‐5, Mental Health Inventory‐5; SF‐8 MC, Short Form‐8 mental component score; SF‐8 PCS, Short Form‐8 physical component score; SF‐PCL‐5, Short‐form PTSD Checklist‐5; SSS‐S, Self‐Stigma Scale‐Short.

The mediation model showed a good fit as reflected by satisfactory fit indices (CFI = 0.968, TLI = 0.950, SRMR = 0.071, RMSEA = 0.068), except for the significant χ 2 test (p < .001). PTSD was directly associated with physical QoL (unstandardized coefficient [B] = −24.61; SE = 2.26; p = .002), mental QoL (B = −17.87; SE = 1.92; p = .003), and insomnia (B = 0.51; SE = 0.09; p = .003) and indirectly associated with physical QoL (B = −11.20; bootstrapping SE = 6.53; 95% CI = −26.19, −1.16), mental QoL (B = −1.44; bootstrapping SE = 0.69; 95% CI = −2.81, −0.12), and insomnia (B = 0.24; bootstrapping SE = 0.05; 95% CI = 0.14, 0.35) via mental health. COVID‐19‐related self‐stigma was directly associated with physical QoL (B = −3.17; SE = 1.00; p = .002), mental QoL (B = −2.33; SE = 0.68; p = .001), and insomnia (B = 0.12; SE = 0.05; p = .011) and indirectly associated with physical QoL (B = −2.50; bootstrapping SE = 1.31; 95% CI = −6.41, −0.75), mental QoL (B = −0.55; bootstrapping SE = 0.30; 95% CI = −1.27, −0.06), and insomnia (B = 0.09; bootstrapping SE = 0.02; 95% CI = 0.04, 0.14) via mental health (Table 3).

TABLE 3.

Models that tested mediation effects relating to insomnia and sleep quality

Unstand.

Coeff.

SE or

(Bootstrapping SE)

t‐value or

(Bootstrapping LLCI)

p‐value or

(Bootstrapping ULCI)
Mediation effects on physical QoL
Direct effect of PTSD on physical QoL −24.61 2.26 10.89 .002
Direct effect of self‐stigma on physical QoL −3.17 1.00 3.17 .002
Indirect effect of PTSD on physical QoL (via mental health) −11.20 (6.53) (−26.19) (−1.16)
Indirect effect of self‐stigma on physical QoL (via mental health) −2.50 (1.31) (−6.41) (−.75)
Mediation effects on mental QoL
Direct effect of PTSD on mental QoL −17.87 1.92 9.31 .003
Direct effect of self‐stigma on mental QoL −2.33 0.68 3.42 .001
Indirect effect of PTSD on mental QoL (via mental health) −1.44 (0.69) (−2.81) (−.12)
Indirect effect of self‐stigma on mental QoL (via mental health) −0.55 (0.30) (−1.27) (−.06)
Mediation effects on insomnia
Direct effect of PTSD on insomnia 0.51 0.09 5.67 .003
Direct effect of self‐stigma on insomnia 0.12 0.05 2.40 .011
Indirect effect of PTSD on insomnia (via mental health) 0.24 (0.05) (0.14) (.35)
Indirect effect of self‐stigma on insomnia (via mental health) 0.09 (0.02) (0.04) (.14)
Open in a new tab

Age, gender, education, smoking status, time from discharge and marital status were adjusted for the model.

Abbreviations: LLCI, lower limit in 95% confidence interval; PTSD, posttraumatic stress disorder; QoL, quality of life; ULCI, upper limit in 95% confidence interval; Unstand. Coeff, unstandardized coefficient.

4. DISCUSSION

This study examined the hypothesis that mental health would mediate relationships between COVID‐19‐related self‐stigma and PTSD and HRQoL and insomnia in patients who recovered from COVID‐19. Findings supported mediation effects. The direct and significant relationships between the independent variables and outcome measures were confirmed, and SEM results showed that a model in which mental health is considered as mediator between study variables had good fit indices. Moreover, both components of HRQoL (i.e., physical and mental components) as well as insomnia were associated with the mediator. Therefore, addressing mental health as an entity through which associations between COVID‐19‐related self‐stigma/PTSD link to HRQoL/insomnia may help design effective intervention strategies to prevent negative psychological effects of COVID‐19 on HRQoL and sleep.

Prior studies have examined the extent to which mental health may have a mediating role. For example, Galletta et al.( 2019) examined the mediation effect of mental health between sense of coherence and physical HRQoL in 209 people with chronic diseases. They found that despite a nonsignificant direct association between sense of coherence and physical HRQoL, the indirect effect of the independent variable on HRQoL through mental health was significant. They concluded that a sense of coherence as a marker of HRQoL may be considered as a psychological process influencing mental health, which in turn may affect physical HRQoL as well. Choi et al.( 2016) identified a mediating role of mental health linking symptom severity and HRQoL in 519 patients with urinary tract infections. In this study, all three subscales of the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale‐21 displayed similar mediation effects in relationships between symptom severity and HRQoL. Thus, they suggested that when improving HRQoL among such patients, the role of mental health in designating effective programs should be considered along with physical relief of symptoms. Yuan et al.( 2020) used a similar design to ours in examining and identifying a partially mediating role of mental health between sleep quality and HRQoL in older adults in China. While these studies used different scales to assess mental health, the findings resonate with the current ones in suggesting a mediating role of mental health.

A point that differentiates our study from those mentioned above is that we used a brief and complete scale (i.e., MHI‐5) to assess mental health. We believe that although the MCS of the HRQoL may be considered as a measure to assess mental health, it is a part of the measure specifically designed to measure HRQoL. We thus believe that our use of an independent scale to assess mental health may be better to assess independent relationships.

As hypothesized, mental health, and HRQoL measures were negatively associated with insomnia and PTSD. Therefore, patients with COVID‐19 who had sleep problems and significant PTSD symptomatology experienced poor HRQoL and mental health. Poor sleep quality has been observed in people with COVID‐19. Among hospitalized patients in intensive care wards of the Wuhan Union Hospital, COVID‐19 patients with poor sleep quality compared to those with better sleep quality had lower recovery rates, poorer immune system functioning and longer hospital stays, negatively impacting their HRQoL (Zhang et al., 2020). Among patients who had recovered from COVID‐19 and were followed for 8 weeks after discharge, more than 85% had sleep problems including changes in subjective sleep quality, sleep latency, sleep duration, and daytime function. More than half of participants were also identified with significant generalized anxiety (Yang et al., 2020). As good sleep may promote better immune system function in COVID‐19 patients, early interventions to improve sleep may be helpful.

Among 675 people who were discharged following COVID‐19 treatment, PTSD and self‐stigma were significant concerns (Liu, Baumeister, et al., 2020). Patients also reported considerable perceived discrimination that generated stress and anxiety for them. Similarly, we found that the association between COVID‐19‐related self‐stigma and PTSD may lead to poorer mental health in general and poorer HRQoL generally, although these measures should be evaluated longitudinally to confirm such relationships. Therefore, finding solutions to target these relationships by decreasing self‐stigma and improving the mental health of patients by reducing stress and anxiety may help improve HRQoL and limit sleep problems among this population. This may be especially important for people with psychiatric problems. Specifically, these patients have been reported to experience more severe sequelae after a COVID‐19 infection than people in the general population. Therefore, specific attention should be paid to this vulnerable population. Indeed, recent research has found that patients with psychiatric problems had high levels of mental health burden (including PTSD and insomnia) when they were exposed to lockdowns and spatial distancing (Carmassi, Bertelloni, et al., 2020).

The current study has limitations. First, we collected data from only four hospitals that admitted patients with COVID‐19. Therefore, our findings may not be generalizable to those who received care in their homes or those with milder symptoms. Second, the study examined a convenient sample using telephone interviews. Third, the survey was cross‐sectional and causality cannot be inferred. Fourth, the survey was subject to recall and other biases. Fifth, discharged patients were contacted about 1 month after discharge and COVID‐19‐related effects on outcomes (HRQoL, insomnia) may change over time. Hence, following such patients for longer periods may help to better understand associations between study variables over time.

In conclusion, our results supported the hypothesis that mental health is a mediator between COVID‐19‐related self‐stigma/PTSD and poor HRQoL/insomnia. Therefore, considering mental health concerns in intervention or prevention measures when helping patients with COVID‐19 may provide more effective approaches to decrease complications and potential negative consequences of the disease, especially on their HRQoL and sleep. Future studies conducted within other jurisdictions may help examine the generalizability of the findings and understand mechanisms underlying associations between physical and psychological health.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

Dr. Potenza has consulted for and advised Opiant Pharmaceuticals, Idorsia Pharmaceuticals, AXA, Game Day Data, and the Addiction Policy Forum; has received research support from the Mohegan Sun Casino, the Connecticut Council on Problem Gambling, and the National Center for Responsible Gaming; has participated in surveys, mailings or telephone consultations related to drug addiction, impulse control disorders, or other health topics; and has consulted for law offices and gambling entities on issues related to impulse control or addictive disorders. The other authors report no financial relationships with commercial interests.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

HM, MS, HS, HRJ, and AHP designed the study and contributed to prepare the initial draft of the manuscript. CYL and MNP critically reviewed the manuscript. Others contributed to collect data and entering data in the analysis software. All authors studied the manuscript and provided their comments on it.

PEER REVIEW

The peer review history for this article is available at https://publons.com/publon/10.1002/brb3.2138.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study was conducted as an approved research plan in Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences but did not receive any financial support and was conducted based on personal resources. The authors would like to express their appreciation for hospitals' managers who helped with the study.

Mahmoudi H, Saffari M, Movahedi M, et al. A mediating role for mental health in associations between COVID‐19‐related self‐stigma, PTSD, quality of life, and insomnia among patients recovered from COVID‐19. Brain Behav. 2021;11:e02138. 10.1002/brb3.2138

Funding information

No fund was received.

Contributor Information

Chung‐Ying Lin, Email: cylin36933@gmail.com.

Amir H. Pakpour, Email: pakpour_amir@yahoo.com.

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

Author elects to not share data.

REFERENCES

  1. Altena, E. , Baglioni, C. , Espie, C. A. , Ellis, J. , Gavriloff, D. , Holzinger, B. , Schlarb, A. , Frase, L. , Jernelöv, S. , & Riemann, D. (2020). Dealing with sleep problems during home confinement due to the COVID‐19 outbreak: Practical recommendations from a task force of the European CBT‐I academy. Journal of Sleep Research, 29(4), e13052. 10.1111/jsr.13052 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Amerio, A. , Aguglia, A. , Odone, A. , Gianfredi, V. , Serafini, G. , Signorelli, C. , & Amore, M. (2020). Covid‐19 pandemic impact on mental health of vulnerable populations. Acta Bio‐medica, 91(9‐S), 95–96. 10.23750/abm.v91i9-S.10112 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Bruns, D. P. , Kraguljac, N. V. , & Bruns, T. R. (2020). COVID‐19: Facts, cultural considerations, and risk of stigmatization. Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 31(4), 326–332. 10.1177/1043659620917724 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Carmassi, C. , Bertelloni, C. A. , Dell'Oste, V. , Barberi, F. M. , Maglio, A. , Buccianelli, B. , Cordone, A. , & Dell'Osso, L. (2020). Tele‐psychiatry assessment of post‐traumatic stress symptoms in 100 patients with bipolar disorder during the COVID‐19 pandemic social‐distancing measures in Italy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11, 580736. 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.580736 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Carmassi, C. , Foghi, C. , Dell'Oste, V. , Cordone, A. , Bertelloni, C. A. , Bui, E. , & Dell'Osso, L. (2020). PTSD symptoms in healthcare workers facing the three coronavirus outbreaks: What can we expect after the COVID‐19 pandemic. Psychiatry Research, 292, 113312. 10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113312 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Castelli, L. , Di Tella, M. , Benfante, A. , & Romeo, A. (2020). The spread of COVID‐19 in the Italian population: Anxiety, depression, and post‐traumatic stress symptoms. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 65(10), 731–732. 10.1177/0706743720938598 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Chang, C.‐C. , Lin, C.‐Y. , Gronholm, P. C. , & Wu, T.‐H. (2018). Cross‐validation of two commonly used self‐stigma measures, Taiwan versions of the internalized stigma mental illness scale and self‐Stigma scale‐short, for people with mental illness. Assessment, 25(6), 777–792. 10.1177/1073191116658547 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Cheng, S. O. (2020). Xenophobia due to the coronavirus outbreak ‐ A letter to the editor in response to "the socio‐economic implications of the coronavirus pandemic (COVID‐19): A review". International Journal of Surgery, 79, 13–14. 10.1016/j.ijsu.2020.05.017 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Choi, E. P. , Lam, C. L. , & Chin, W. Y. (2016). Mental health mediating the relationship between symptom severity and health‐related quality of life in patients with lower urinary tract symptoms. LUTS: Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms, 8(3), 141–149. 10.1111/luts.12086 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Fekih‐Romdhane, F. , Ghrissi, F. , Abbassi, B. , Cherif, W. , & Cheour, M. (2020). Prevalence and predictors of PTSD during the COVID‐19 pandemic: Findings from a Tunisian community sample. Psychiatry Research, 290, 113131. 10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113131 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Fofana, N. K. , Latif, F. , Sarfraz, S. , Bilal, X. , Bashir, M. F. , & Komal, B. (2020). Fear and agony of the pandemic leading to stress and mental illness: An emerging crisis in the novel coronavirus (COVID‐19) outbreak. Psychiatry Research, 291, 113230. 10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113230 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Fung, X. C. C. , Pakpour, A. H. , Wu, Y. K. , Fan, C. W. , Lin, C. Y. , & Tsang, H. W. H. (2019). Psychosocial variables related to weight‐related self‐stigma in physical activity among young adults across weight status. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(1), 64. 10.3390/ijerph17010064 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Galletta, M. , Cherchi, M. , Cocco, A. , Lai, G. , Manca, V. , Pau, M. , Tatti, F. , Zambon, G. , Deidda, S. , Origa, P. , Massa, E. , Cossu, E. , Boi, F. , & Contu, P. (2019). Sense of coherence and physical health‐related quality of life in Italian chronic patients: The mediating role of the mental component. British Medical Journal Open, 9(9), e030001. 10.1136/bmjopen-2019-030001 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Guo, Y. , Cheng, C. , Zeng, Y. U. , Li, Y. , Zhu, M. , Yang, W. , Xu, H. E. , Li, X. , Leng, J. , Monroe‐Wise, A. , & Wu, S. (2020). Mental health disorders and associated risk factors in quarantined adults during the COVID‐19 outbreak in China: Cross‐sectional study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 22(8), e20328. 10.2196/20328 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Holtge, J. , Mc Gee, S. L. , & Thoma, M. V. (2019). The curvilinear relationship of early‐life adversity and successful aging: The mediating role of mental health. Aging and Mental Health, 23(5), 608–617. 10.1080/13607863.2018.1433635 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Kamenidou, I. E. , Stavrianea, A. , & Liava, C. (2020). Achieving a Covid‐19 free country: Citizens preventive measures and communication pathways. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(13), 4633. 10.3390/ijerph17134633 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Lahiri, A. , Jha, S. S. , Bhattacharya, S. , Ray, S. , & Chakraborty, A. (2020). Effectiveness of preventive measures against COVID‐19: A systematic review of in silico modeling studies in Indian context. Indian Journal of Public Health, 64(Supplement), S156–S167. 10.4103/ijph.IJPH_464_20 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Lim, T. K. (2020). The facts, fallacies and uncertainties about coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19). Annals of the Academy of Medicine, Singapore, 49(6), 343–345. 10.47102/Annals-acadmedsg.2020217 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Lin, C.‐Y. , Cheng, A. S. K. , Nejati, B. , Imani, V. , Ulander, M. , Browall, M. , Griffiths, M. D. , Broström, A. , & Pakpour, A. H. (2020). A thorough psychometric comparison between Athens insomnia scale and insomnia severity index among patients with advanced cancer. Journal of Sleep Research, 29(1), e12891. 10.1111/jsr.12891 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Liu, C. H. , Stevens, C. , Conrad, R. C. , & Hahm, H. C. (2020). Evidence for elevated psychiatric distress, poor sleep, and quality of life concerns during the COVID‐19 pandemic among U.S. young adults with suspected and reported psychiatric diagnoses. Psychiatry Research, 292, 113345. 10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113345 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Liu, D. , Baumeister, R. F. , Veilleux, J. C. , Chen, C. , Liu, W. , Yue, Y. , & Zhang, S. (2020). Risk factors associated with mental illness in hospital discharged patients infected with COVID‐19 in Wuhan, China. Psychiatry Research, 292, 113297. 10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113297 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Lucksted, A. , & Drapalski, A. L. (2015). Self‐stigma regarding mental illness: Definition, impact, and relationship to societal stigma. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 38(2), 99–102. 10.1037/prj0000152 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. McCarthy, E. , DeViva, J. C. , Norman, S. B. , Southwick, S. M. , & Pietrzak, R. H. (2019). Self‐assessed sleep quality partially mediates the relationship between PTSD symptoms and functioning and quality of life in U.S. veterans: Results from the national health and resilience in veterans study. Psychological Trauma, 11(8), 869–876. 10.1037/tra0000436 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Meybodi, F. A. , Saeedi, Z. , Behjati, Z. , Noorbala, F. , Dastbaravardec, A. , & Enjedany, E. (2011). Reliability and validity of a farsi version of 18‐item mental health inventory. Procedia—Social and Behavioural Sciences, 30(1), 1425–1429. 10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.10.277 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  25. Mohapatra, R. K. , Pintilie, L. , Kandi, V. , Sarangi, A. K. , Das, D. , Sahu, R. , & Perekhoda, L. (2020). The recent challenges of highly contagious COVID‐19, causing respiratory infections: Symptoms, diagnosis, transmission, possible vaccines, animal models, and immunotherapy. Chemical Biology and Drug Design, 96(5), 1187–1208. 10.1111/cbdd.13761 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. North, C. S. , & Pfefferbaum, B. (2013). Mental health response to community disasters: A systematic review. JAMA, 310(5), 507–518. 10.1001/jama.2013.107799 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Pakpour, A. H. , Nourozi, S. , Molsted, S. , Harrison, A. P. , Nourozi, K. , & Fridlund, B. (2011). Validity and reliability of short form‐12 questionnaire in Iranian hemodialysis patients. Iranian Journal of Kidney Diseases, 5(3), 175–181. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Pavlova, M. , Ference, J. , Hancock, M. , & Noel, M. (2017). Disentangling the sleep‐pain relationship in pediatric chronic pain: The mediating role of internalizing mental health symptoms. Pain Research and Management, 2017, 1586921. 10.1155/2017/1586921 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Rangel, J. C. , Ranade, S. , Sutcliffe, P. , Mykhalovskiy, E. , Gastaldo, D. , & Eakin, J. (2020). COVID‐19 policy measures‐advocating for the inclusion of the social determinants of health in modelling and decision making. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice, 26(4), 1078–1080. 10.1111/jep.13436 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Reznik, A. , Gritsenko, V. , Konstantinov, V. , Khamenka, N. , & Isralowitz, R. (2020). COVID‐19 fear in Eastern Europe: Validation of the fear of COVID‐19 scale. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 1–6. 10.1007/s11469-020-00283-3 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Sadeghi, M. , Taghva, A. , Goudarzi, N. , & Rah Nejat, A. M. (2016). Validity and reliability of Persian version of “Post‐Traumatic Stress Disorder Scale” in war veterans. Iranian Journal of War and Public Health, 8(4), 243–249. [Google Scholar]
  32. Serafini, G. , Rihmer, Z. , Amerio, A. , Aguglia, A. , & Amore, M. (2020). COVID‐19 infection and mental disorders: A call for action to enhance protection and break down barriers. Psychiatria Hungarica, 35(3), 245–246. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Sharifi, H. , Jahani, Y. , Mirzazadeh, A. , Ahmadi Gohari, M. , Nakhaeizadeh, M. , Shokoohi, M. , Eybpoosh, S. , Tohidinik, H. R. , Mostafavi, E. , Khalili, D. , Hashemi Nazari, S. S. , Karamouzian, M. , & Haghdoost, A. A. (2020). Estimating COVID‐19‐related infections, deaths, and hospitalizations in Iran under different physical distancing and isolation scenarios. International Journal of Health Policy and Management. 10.34172/ijhpm.2020.134 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Stanton, R. , To, Q. G. , Khalesi, S. , Williams, S. L. , Alley, S. J. , Thwaite, T. L. , Fenning, A. S. , & Vandelanotte, C. (2020). Depression, anxiety and stress during COVID‐19: Associations with changes in physical activity, sleep, tobacco and alcohol use in Australian adults. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(11), 4065. 10.3390/ijerph17114065 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Turner‐Musa, J. , Ajayi, O. , & Kemp, L. (2020). Examining social determinants of health, stigma, and COVID‐19 disparities. Healthcare (Basel), 8(2), 168. 10.3390/healthcare8020168 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Wang, S. , Xin, H.‐N. , Chung Lim Vico, C. , Liao, J.‐H. , Li, S.‐L. , Xie, N.‐M. , & Hu, R.‐F. (2020). Effect of an ICU diary on psychiatric disorders, quality of life, and sleep quality among adult cardiac surgical ICU survivors: A randomized controlled trial. Critical Care, 24(1), 81. 10.1186/s13054-020-2797-7 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Wiwanitkit, V. (2020). Delay and differential diagnosis and screening for symptoms of COVID‐19. Journal of the American College of Surgeons, 231(3), 409. 10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2020.05.014 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Worldometer (2020). COVID‐19 CORONAVIRUS PANDEMIC. https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/? [Google Scholar]
  39. Yang, L. , Yu, Z. , Xu, Y. , Liu, W. , Liu, L. , & Mao, H. (2020). Mental status of patients with chronic insomnia in China during COVID‐19 epidemic. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 66(8), 821–826. 10.1177/0020764020937716 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Yiengprugsawan, V. , Kelly, M. , & Tawatsupa, B. (2014). SF‐8TM health survey. Springer. [Google Scholar]
  41. Yuan, Y. , Li, J. , Jing, Z. , Yu, C. , Zhao, D. , Hao, W. , & Zhou, C. (2020). The role of mental health and physical activity in the association between sleep quality and quality of life among rural elderly in China: A moderated mediation model. Journal of Affective Disorders, 273, 462–467. 10.1016/j.jad.2020.05.093 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Zhang, J. , Xu, D. , Xie, B. , Zhang, Y. , Huang, H. , Liu, H. , Chen, H. , Sun, Y. , Shang, Y. , Hashimoto, K. , & Yuan, S. (2020). Poor‐sleep is associated with slow recovery from lymphopenia and an increased need for ICU care in hospitalized patients with COVID‐19: A retrospective cohort study. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 19, 50–58. 10.1016/j.bbi.2020.05.075 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Zuromski, K. L. , Ustun, B. , Hwang, I. , Keane, T. M. , Marx, B. P. , Stein, M. B. , Ursano, R. J. , & Kessler, R. C. (2019). Developing an optimal short‐form of the PTSD Checklist for DSM‐5 (PCL‐5). Depression and Anxiety, 36(9), 790–800. 10.1002/da.22942 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Data Availability Statement

Author elects to not share data.

Articles from Brain and Behavior are provided here courtesy of Wiley

RESOURCES