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. 2020 Dec 1;115(6):1184–1189. [Article in Portuguese] doi: 10.36660/abc.20200643
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Papel do Endotélio na COVID-19 Grave

Simone Cristina Soares Brandão 1, Emmanuelle Tenório Albuquerque Madruga Godoi 1, Júlia de Oliveira Xavier Ramos 1, Leila Maria Magalhães Pessoa de Melo 2, Luca Terracini Dompieri 1, Djair Falcão Brindeiro Filho 1, Emanuel Sávio Cavalcanti Sarinho 1
PMCID: PMC8133713  PMID: 33470322

Introdução

Estudos têm revelado uma relação significativa entre a gravidade da COVID-19 ( CO rona VI rus D isease 2019) e marcadores imunes. Sabe-se, por exemplo, que o endotélio participa ativamente da resposta imune e interage intimamente com o sistema de coagulação.1 Além disso, processos inflamatórios crônicos do endotélio estão envolvidos na fisiopatologia das doenças cardiovasculares (DCV) e metabólicas.2 Essas afecções podem impactar negativamente na evolução da COVID-19, e a resposta imune exacerbada do endotélio parece ser o fator determinante desse efeito.3

O coronavírus 2 da síndrome respiratória aguda grave (SARS-CoV-2) causa infecção por meio da ligação da proteína S ao receptor da enzima conversora de angiotensina 2 (ECA-2) na superfície da célula humana.3 - 5 Desse modo, é observada uma redução na disponibilidade dessa enzima, amplamente expressa em vários tecidos do corpo humano, notadamente em pulmões, coração e endotélio, com distúrbio na modulação do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona (SRAA).6 Consequentemente, há um favorecimento da maior concentração de angiotensina 2 com uma série de ações deletérias ao organismo. Condições associadas à disfunção crônica do endotélio, como idade, hipertensão arterial sistêmica (HAS), DCV, diabetes melito e obesidade, são mais frequentes nos pacientes com COVID-19 grave ( Figura 1 ).2 , 7

Figura 1. – Consequências da ligação do coronavírus 2 da síndrome respiratória aguda grave (SARS-CoV-2) com o receptor da enzima conversora de angiotensina 2 (ECA-2). A proteína S do vírus se liga ao receptor da ECA-2 da célula humana, reduzindo sua atividade enzimática. A ECA-1 e a ECA-2 agem nas angiotensinas (ANG) 1 e 2, respectivamente. A hipofunção da ECA-2 leva a uma diminuição na concentração de ANG 1-7 e, consequentemente, a um aumento na quantidade de ANG 2, com efeitos deletérios a órgãos e tecidos. Comorbidades como diabetes melito, HAS, DCV, idade avançada e obesidade causam disfunção endotelial crônica, que é agravada pela desregulação do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona ocasionada pelo SARS-CoV-2. DCV: doenças cardiovasculares; EROS: espécies reativas de oxigênio; HAS: hipertensão arterial sistêmica; AT1R: receptor 1 de ANG 2; AT2R: receptor 2 de ANG 2; R-MAS: receptor de angiotensina 1-7. Fonte: elaborada pelos autores. Criada com biorender.com.

Figura 1

Esse desequilíbrio no SRAA contribui para um estado pró-inflamatório, pró-oxidativo, com recrutamento macrofágico, excesso de citocinas circulantes, aumento na liberação de aldosterona, lesão tecidual e disfunção de múltiplos órgãos, característicos da forma grave da COVID-19.6 , 8 , 9 Todas essas alterações desencadeadas pelo SARS-CoV-2 podem prejudicar a função endotelial; por isso, comorbidades ligadas ao endotélio conferem maior gravidade à doença. Percebe-se, assim, na fisiopatogenia da COVID-19, uma inter-relação entre fatores pró-inflamatórios e pró-trombóticos, tornando-os importantes alvos terapêuticos.1 , 3 , 8 - 10

Resposta do Endotélio à COVID-19

O endotélio desempenha papel fundamental na resposta à infecção. Isso porque células endoteliais liberam substâncias solúveis, as quimiocinas, que atraem os leucócitos para o local infectado e produzem citocinas, que ativam a resposta inflamatória. Desse modo, pacientes com disfunção endotelial crônica apresentam alterações importantes no glicocálix, nas junções intercelulares e células endoteliais, o que resulta em maior adesão e extravasamento de leucócitos, induzindo um estado de hipercoagulabilidade e redução na ação fibrinolítica. A disfunção endotelial crônica contribui, então, para o desenvolvimento da COVID-19 grave.8 , 9

O endotélio é um órgão ativo, indispensável para a regulação do tônus e manutenção da homeostase vascular.1 Na COVID-19, o recrutamento de células imunes, seja pela agressão viral direta ao endotélio ou imunomediada, pode resultar em disfunção endotelial generalizada, associada à apoptose.3 , 11 - 13 Estudos histológicos post-mortem revelaram um quadro de endotelite linfocítica em pulmões, coração, rins e fígado, bem como necrose celular e presença de microtrombos, que, nos pulmões, agravam a insuficiência respiratória.1 , 6 , 8 , 9 , 14 , 15

O endotélio já foi estudado em outras doenças virais, como no vírus da imunodeficiência humana (HIV) e na influenza. Assim como o HIV, o SARS-CoV-2 parece ter um efeito direto de agressão endotelial.13 , 16 Em estudos de autópsias, foram encontradas evidências de agressão viral direta do SARS-CoV-2 à célula endotelial e inflamação difusa.1 , 12 Ackermann et al.1 demonstraram uma quantidade de microtrombos nove vezes maior em pulmões de pessoas com COVID-19 do que naquelas com influenza. Nesses mesmos pulmões, a neoangiogênese também foi 2,7 vezes mais prevalente na COVID-19 do que na influenza.

A ideia de que estados inflamatórios crônicos subclínicos sejam responsáveis pela instalação de doenças ou pelo seu agravamento encontra-se bem estabelecida. A associação de células inflamatórias e seus respectivos produtos é bem reconhecida na fisiopatologia da aterosclerose, condição com grande repercussão no endotélio e nos componentes da síndrome metabólica (obesidade, diabetes melito e has).11 , 17

Embora as doenças cardiometabólicas possam iniciar na infância, é nas fases adulta e senil que ela é expressivamente mais prevalente. Na aterosclerose, assim como na COVID-19, existe predominância de resposta TH1, envolvendo o interferon-gama (IFN-γ), o fator de necrose tumoral alfa (TNF-α) e o beta (TNF-β), que amplificam a resposta inflamatória. O IFN-γ é considerado uma das principais citocinas pró-aterogênicas, pois ativa macrófagos e favorece a participação deles na resposta inflamatória.11 , 12 Torna-se evidente que uma amplificação do processo aterosclerótico ocorre a partir de uma resposta imune específica, com produção de citocinas da via TH1, como a interleucina-12 (IL-12) e o IFN-γ.11 , 12

Uma vez que o desequilíbrio no sistema imunológico está presente na fisiopatologia das DCV e da síndrome metabólica, as pessoas com essas doenças, até mesmo as mais jovens, com aterosclerose incipiente, estariam mais susceptíveis à forma grave da COVID-19, por já possuírem um “terreno” imune hiperativo e desregulado.5 , 11 , 18

Outra explicação para as doenças cardiometabólicas serem fatores de risco para a forma grave da COVID-19 envolve os receptores de reconhecimento de patógenos toll-like-4 (TLR4), integrantes moleculares da imunidade inata.5 , 18 Já se sabe que os TLR4 participam da patogênese das DCV e metabólicas, como aterosclerose, diabetes e obesidade. Eles são expressos em diferentes tipos de células da placa aterosclerótica, e vários ligantes pró-aterogênicos podem ativá-los. Os TLR4 estão também envolvidos na lipotoxicidade e na disfunção de células betapancreáticas. A hiperexpressão dos TLR4 pode ser, inclusive, geneticamente codificada.5 , 18

Na imunopatologia da COVID-19 ocorre elevação, principalmente, da interleucina-6 (IL-6) e do TNF-α. Essas citocinas são produtos de ativação do TLR4. Em um estudo por simulações computacionais, demonstrou-se que a proteína S do SARS-CoV-2 é reconhecida pelos TLR4.5 Assim, indivíduos com maior expressão desses receptores, uma vez infectados pelo SARS-CoV-2, sofreriam maior ativação e liberação de IL-6 e TNF-α, condição vista na forma grave da COVID-19.

Como já comentado, outro provável mecanismo responsável pela pior evolução da COVID-19 envolve o receptor da ECA-2.19 A redução da sua atividade pelo SARS-CoV-2 tem implicações nas DCV por potencializar a desregulação do SRAA e do sistema imune.6 , 20 Já existem evidências de que o uso de medicações que bloqueiam o SRAA, como inibidores de ECA-1 (IECA) e bloqueadores do receptor da angiotensina (BRA), não se relaciona com aumento de mortalidade pela COVID-19, podendo inclusive ser fator de proteção.19 , 21

Alterações na Coagulação na COVID-19

Estados inflamatórios exacerbados culminam em estase sanguínea, ativação plaquetária e disfunção endotelial, elevando as chances de episódios trombóticos venosos e arteriais. A coagulopatia na infecção grave por COVID-19 é semelhante à coagulopatia induzida pela sepse, caracterizada por coagulação intravascular disseminada e microangiopatia trombótica. Somado a isso, destaca-se que a hipoxemia, secundária à lesão pulmonar causada pela COVID-19, é fator de risco para trombose.8 , 9 , 17

O SARS-CoV-2 provoca a síndrome respiratória aguda grave (SARS), na qual ocorre acúmulo de fibrina insolúvel no espaço alveolar. Aventa-se que o fibrinogênio extravase do plasma por aumento da permeabilidade vascular e dano alveolar difuso, com eliminação incompleta devido a um estado de hipofibrinólise. Cronicamente, essa fibrina insolúvel contribui para fibrose pulmonar e seus desdobramentos negativos.8 , 9 , 15 , 17

As principais alterações na coagulação presentes na COVID-19 são: elevação do dímero-D, do fibrinogênio e do tempo de protrombina, e diminuição da fibrinólise. A contagem de plaquetas pode estar reduzida nos estágios mais avançados da doença, sendo fator preditivo de mortalidade.8 , 9 , 15 , 17 O aumento do risco de trombose ocorre também nas artérias, e diferentes manifestações clínicas podem aparecer, como: acidente vascular encefálico, isquemia mesentérica, infarto agudo do miocárdio e oclusão arterial de membros inferiores, a depender do leito arterial acometido.22 Corroborando a hipótese de agressão vascular, alguns casos com características da síndrome do choque tóxico ou síndrome inflamatória multissistêmica pediátrica similar à doença de Kawasaki têm sido descritos e relacionados à COVID-19.20

Estratégias Terapêuticas

Considerando o exposto, destaca-se a importância do controle rigoroso dos fatores de risco cardiometabólicos.5 O objetivo é deixar o endotélio menos reativo e menos vulnerável à COVID-19. A otimização do tratamento medicamentoso com o uso de hipoglicemiantes, anti-hipertensivos, hipolipemiantes (principalmente as estatinas) e antiagregantes plaquetários (como o ácido acetilsalicílico) pode estabilizar o endotélio.5 , 20 , 23 Fármacos como IECA e BRA parecem fundamentais na redução do risco de desfechos graves pela COVID-19, uma vez que ajudam a equilibrar o SRAA.19 Em relação ao SARS-CoV-2, até o momento, não existe tratamento específico que seja comprovadamente eficaz no combate ao vírus. A estratégia terapêutica tem se baseado no reconhecimento precoce das complicações e no suporte otimizado para aliviar os sintomas ( Figura 2 ).

Figura 1. – Estratégias de tratamento para a prevenção da COVID-19 de acordo com as fases da doença. Fonte: elaborada pelos autores. Criada com biorender.com.

Figura 1

Na fase hiperinflamatória da COVID-19, as medicações que inibam ou reduzam os efeitos das citocinas pró-inflamatórias são muito pertinentes e devem ser levadas em consideração. Os inibidores de IL-6, assim como os glicocorticoides, poderiam evitar ou amenizar a tempestade de citocinas.23 Novas medicações moduladoras da resposta inflamatória são fundamentais nessa fase para evitar a inflamação excessiva, que agride intensamente o endotélio e os diversos órgãos, podendo culminar com falência de múltiplos órgãos até a morte.

Em relação ao tromboembolismo venoso, os pacientes hospitalizados devem receber tromboprofilaxia farmacológica com heparina de baixo peso molecular ou fondaparinux (preferencialmente à heparina não fracionada), a menos que o risco de sangramento exceda o de trombose, quando então se faz a profilaxia mecânica.8 , 9 , 15 , 17 O ajuste da dose da heparina de acordo com o índice de massa corpórea e com o clearance de creatinina é recomendado.8 , 15 A heparinização plena é indicada em casos de forte suspeita clínica ou já confirmados de tromboembolismo venoso.8 , 15

A heparina é uma medicação já largamente utilizada na medicina, pela ação anticoagulante e pelo efeito anti-inflamatório. Entretanto, na COVID-19, além desses efeitos, estudos têm sugerido seu uso como modo de impedir a replicação viral. O SARS-CoV-2 se liga ao receptor da ECA-2 para penetrar na célula humana e se multiplicar. Acredita-se que, para essa ligação, o vírus também precisa se ligar ao heparan sulfato presente, dentre outros sítios, na membrana basal do endotélio. A utilização de heparina tem sido sugerida como estratégia de ligação ao heparan sulfato, impedindo a ligação do SARS-CoV-2 ao receptor da ECA-2 e diminuindo, assim, a replicação viral.24

Conclusão

Em resumo, ressalta-se que a função endotelial é fator fundamental na progressão dos estágios clínicos da COVID-19, pois a disfunção crônica do endotélio, que acontece nas doenças pré-existentes, favorece diretamente a evolução para a forma grave da doença. Assim, enquanto a vacina é aguardada, os alvos terapêuticos ( Tabela 1 ) devem ser: controle das condições cardiovasculares, metabólicas e endoteliais da população de risco e nos infectados; e redução da replicação viral, da hiperinflamação e da hipercoagulabilidade.

Tabela 1. – Potenciais alvos terapêuticos de drogas candidatas ao combate da COVID-19. Como se trata de uma doença pandêmica, as etapas de tratamento devem acontecer mesmo antes das pessoas serem infectadas pelo vírus. *Ensaios clínicos já publicados não mostraram benefícios.

Etapas Potenciais alvos terapêuticos Medicações
Etapa 1: sem COVID-19 Anti-hipertensivos Inibidores da enzima conversora de angiotensina (ECA) e bloqueadores dos receptores de angiotensina (BRA), principalmente
Estatinas Sinvastatina, rosuvastatina, atorvastatina etc.
Antiplaquetários Ácido acetilsalicílico
Vacinas Múltiplas candidatas. Pesquisas em andamento
Etapa 2: fase 1 da COVID-19 Entrada pelo receptor da ECA-2 ECA-2 recombinante solúvel
TMPRSS2 protease S priming Inibidor de protease (mesilato de camostato)
Endocitose do receptor Cloroquina ou hidroxicloroquina*
RNA polimerase para replicação Remdesivir, Favipiravir
Proteases virais Lopinavir/Ritonavir*
Transporte nuclear pela importina Ivermectina
Etapas 3 e 4: Fase 2 da COVID-19, hiperinflamatória Fase 3 da COVID-19, “tempestade” de citocinas Antivirais/anti-inflamatórios Plasma convalescente de pacientes com a COVID-19, Interferon tipo I, imunoglobulinas, células troncomesenquimais
Ativação pelo excesso de interleucina-1 Anakinra, canaquinumabe, colchicina
Tempestade de citocinas Tocilizumabe, sarilumabe, siltuximabe (inibidores de interleucina-6) ou baricitinibe (inibidor da JAK), lenzilumab (inibidor do fator estimulante de colônias de granulócito-macrófago)
Infecção bacteriana/inflamação Azitromicina e outros antibióticos
  Coagulopatia Regime de anticoagulação plena ou profilática
Antivirais/anti-inflamatórios Plasma convalescente
Estresse oxidativo Vitamina C, deferoxamine

ECA 2: enzima conversora da angiotensina 2. TMPRSS2: transmembrana protease serina 2. Fonte: modificada da referência 10.

Vinculação Acadêmica

Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.

Fontes de Financiamento .O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.

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The Role of the Endothelium in Severe COVID-19

Simone Cristina Soares Brandão 1, Emmanuelle Tenório Albuquerque Madruga Godoi 1, Júlia de Oliveira Xavier Ramos 1, Leila Maria Magalhães Pessoa de Melo 2, Luca Terracini Dompieri 1, Djair Falcão Brindeiro Filho 1, Emanuel Sávio Cavalcanti Sarinho 1

Introduction

Studies have unveiled a significant link between the severity of COVID-19 ( CO rona VI rus D isease 2019) and immune markers. It is well-known that the endothelium participates actively in the immune response and interacts closely with the coagulation system.1Chronic inflammatory processes of the endothelium are involved in the physiopathology of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) and metabolic diseases.2These diseases can negatively impact the evolution of COVID-19 and an exacerbated immune response of the endothelium seems to be a determining factor of this effect.3

Coronavirus 2 of the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS-CoV-2) causes infection by means of the link of the S protein to the Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 (ACE 2) on the surface of human cells.3In this sense, a reduction in the availability of this enzyme can be observed, which is widely expressed in a number of bodily tissues, most notably, the lungs, heart, and endothelium, with a disorder in the modulation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS).6Consequently, what can be seen is a favoring of the greater concentration of angiotensin 2 with a series of deleterious actions against our organism. Conditions associated with the chronic dysfunction of the endothelium, such as age, systemic arterial hypertension (SAH), CVD, diabetes, and obesity are the most common in patients with severe COVID-19 ( Figure 1 ).2 , 7

Figure 1. – Consequences of the connection of coronavirus 2 of the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV-2) to the ACE 2 receptor (angiotensin-converting enzyme 2). The S protein of SARS-CoV-2 connects to the ACE 2 receptor of the human cell, reducing its enzymatic activity. The ACE 1 (angiotensin-converting enzyme 1) and ACE 2 act in the angiotensin I (ANG I) and II (ANG II). The hypofunction of the ACE 2 leads to a reduction in the concentration of angiotensin 1-7 (ANG 1-7) and, consequently, to an increase in the quantity of ANG II, with deleterious effects to the organs and tissues. Comorbidities, such as DM, SAH, CVD, advanced age, and obesity, cause chronic endothelial dysfunction, which can be aggravated by the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, caused by SARS-CoV-2. DM: diabetes mellitus; CVD: cardiovascular diseases; RSO: reactive species of oxygen; SAH: systemic arterial hypertension; R1AT: receptor 1 of ANG II; R2AT: receptor 2 of ANG II; R-MAS: receptor of angiotensin 1-7. Source: Figure drafted by the authors. Created with biorender.com.

Figure 1

This imbalance in the RAAS contributes to a pro-inflammatory, pro-oxidative state, with macrophage recruitment, an excess of circulating cytokines and increase in the release of aldosterone, tissue damage, and the dysfunction of multiple organs, all characteristic of the severe form of COVID-19.6 , 8 , 9All of these alterations triggered by SARS-CoV-2 can harm the endothelial function. Therefore, comorbidities linked to the endothelium confer a greater severity to the disease. In the physiopathogenesis of COVID-19 one can thus observe an interaction between the pro-inflammatory and the pro-thrombotic factors, making them important therapeutic targets.1 , 3 , 8 - 10

Endothelial Response to COVID-19

The endothelium plays an important role in the response to infection. Endothelial cells release soluble substances, chemokines, which attract leucocytes to the infected location and produce cytokines, in turn activating the inflammatory response. Patients with chronic endothelial dysfunction present important alterations in the glycocalyx, intercellular junctions, and endothelial cells, which results in greater leukocyte adhesion and extravasation, as well as leads to a state of hypercoagulability and reduction in the fibrinolytic action. Chronic endothelial dysfunction thus contributes to the development of severe COVID-19.8 , 9

The endothelium is an active organ, which is essential for the regulation of the tonus and the maintenance of vascular homeostasis.1In COVID-19, the recruitment of immune cells, be it through direct or immune-mediated viral aggression, can result in a widespread endothelial dysfunction, associated with apoptosis.3 , 11 - 13Post-mortem histological studies have demonstrated a medical picture of lymphocytic endothelialitis in the lungs, heart, kidneys, and liver, as well as cell necrosis and the presence of microthrombi, which aggravate respiratory insufficiency in the lungs.1 , 6 , 8 , 9 , 14 , 15

The endothelium has already been studied in other viral diseases, such as in the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and influenza. Much like HIV, SARS-CoV-2 also appears to be directly impacted by endothelial agression.13 , 16Autopsy studies have found evidence of direct viral aggression from SARS-CoV-2 against the endothelial cell, coupled with widespread inflammation.1 , 12Ackermann et al.1demonstrated a quantity of microthrombi that is nine times greater in the lungs of COVID-19 patients than in those patients with influenza. In these same lungs, the neo-angiogenesis was also 2.7 times more prevalent in COVID-19 than in influenza.

The idea that subclinical chronic inflammatory states are responsible for the installation of diseases or for their worsening is well-defined in the literature. The association of inflammatory cells and their respective products is well-known in the physiopathology of atherosclerosis, a condition which has a great repercussion upon the endothelium and in the components of the metabolic syndrome (obesity, diabetes mellitus, and hypertension).11 , 17

Although the cardiometabolic disease can begin during childhood, it is in the adult and senile stage that it is more expressively prevalent. In atherosclerosis, as well as in COVID-19, there is a predominance of the TH1 response, involving the interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), and tumor necrosis factor beta (TNF-β), which amplifies the inflammatory response. The IFN-γ is considered to be one of the main pro-atherogenic cytokines, as it activates the macrophages and favors the participation of these in the inflammatory response.11 , 12It thus becomes evident that an amplification in the atherosclerotic process occurs as of a specific immune response, with the production of TH1 cytokines, such as interleukin-12 (IL-12) and IFN-γ.11 , 12

Since the imbalance in the immune system is present in the physiopathology of CVDs and the metabolic syndrome, people with these diseases, even younger people with incipient atherosclerosis, would be more susceptible to the most severe form of COVID-19, as they already have a hyperactive and uncontrolled immune “terrain”.5 , 11 , 18

Another explanation for cadiometabolic diseases being risk factors for the severe form of COVID-19 involves the recognition receptors of the Toll-Like-4 (TLR4) pathogens, which are molecular members of innate immunity.5 , 18It is well-known that the TLR4 participate in the pathogenesis of the CVDs and metabolic diseases, such as atherosclerosis, diabetes, and obesity. The TLR4 are expressed in different types of cells of the atherosclerotic plaque, and various pro-atherogenic ligands can activate them. The TLR4 are also involved in lipotoxicity and in pancreatic beta cell dysfunction. The hyperextension of the TLR4 can even be genetically codified.5 , 18

Interleukin-6 (IL-6) and TNF-α tend to be higher in the immunopathology of COVID-19. These cytokines are products of the activation of TLR4. In a study conducted using computer simulations illustrated that the S protein of SARS-CoV-2 is recognized by the TLR4.5Consequently, individuals with a greater expression of these receptors, once infected by SARS-CoV-2, would suffer greater activation and release of IL-6 and TNF-α, a condition observed in the severe form of COVID-19.

As mentioned above, another probable mechanism responsible for the poor evolution of COVID-19 involves the ACE 2 receptor.19The reduction in the ACE 2 activity caused by SARS-CoV-2 direct influences CVDs, as they increase the potential for the deregulation of RAAS and the immune system.6 , 20There is already evidence that the use of medications that block the RAAS, such as ACE 1 inhibitors (ACEI) and angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs), are not related to the increase in mortality caused by COVID-19, and can even serve as protection factors.19 , 21

Alterations in COVID-19 Coagulation

Exacerbated inflammatory states culminate in blood stasis, platelet activation, and endothelial dysfunction, raising the probability of episodes of venous and arterial thrombosis. The coagulopathy in severe COVID-19 infection is similar to coagulopathy induced by sepsis, characterized by widespread intravascular coagulation and thrombotic microangiopathy. In addition, one can highlight hypoxemia, secondary to the pulmonary lesion caused by COVID-19, which is a risk factor for thrombosis.8 , 9 , 17

SARS-CoV-2 provokes SARS. In this syndrome, insoluble fibrin accumulates in the alveolar space. It can be said that the fibrinogen flows out of the plasma due to an increase in the vascular permeability and the widespread alveolar damage, with its incomplete elimination due to a state of hypofibrinolysis. Chronically, this insoluble fibrin contributes to pulmonary fibrosis and its negative repercussions.8 , 9 , 15 , 17

The main alterations in the coagulation present in COVID-19 are: rise in the D-dimer, fibrogen, and time of prothrombin, as well as a reduction in fibrinolysis. The platelet count can be reduced in the more advanced stages of the disease, and is a predictive factor of mortality.8 , 9 , 15 , 17The increase in the risk of thrombosis also occurs in the arteries and different clinical manifestations can appear, including: cerebrovascular accident, mesenteric ischemia, acute infarction of the myocardium, and arterial occlusion of the lower limbs, depending on the affected arterial bed.22Corroborating with the hypothesis of vascular aggression, some cases with features of toxic shock or pediatric multisystemic inflammatory syndrome similar to the Kawasaki disease have been described and related to COVID-19.20

Therapeutic Strategies

Considering that put forth above, it is possible to highlight the importance of the strict control of cardiometabolic risk factors.5The aim is to render the endothelium less reactive and less vulnerable to COVID-19. The optimization of the medicinal treatment with the use of anti-diabetic, anti-hypertensive, hypolipidemic (mainly statins), and anti-platelet (such as acetyl salicylic acid) medications can stabilize the endothelium.5 , 20 , 23Drugs, such as ACEI and ARB, seem to be essential in the reduction of the risk of severe outcomes caused by COVID-19, since it helps to balance the RAAS.19Regarding to the SARS-CoV-2, to date, no specific treatment has been proven to be effective in the fight against the virus. The therapeutic strategy has been based on the early recognition of the complications in the optimized support to alleviate the symptoms ( Figure 2 ).

Figure 2. – Treatment strategies for prevention and according to the stages of the disease caused by coronavírus-2 (COVID-19). Source: Figure drafted by the authors. Created with biorender.com.

Figure 2

In the hyperinflammatory stage of COVID-19, the medications that inhibit or reduce the effects of the pro-inflammatory cytokines are quite pertinent and should be taken into consideration. The IL-6 inhibitors, as well as the glucocorticoids, can avoid or lessen the storm of cytokines.23New modulator medications of the inflammatory response are key in this stage to avoid excessive inflammation, which intensely attacks the endothelium and the diverse organs and can result in multiple organ failure and even death.

Regarding to venous thromboembolism, hospitalized patients should receive pharmacological thromboprophylaxis with heparin in a low molecular weight or fondaparinux (preferably unfractionated heparin), unless the risk of bleeding exceeds the risk of thrombosis, in which case, mechanical prophylaxis should be applied.8 , 9 , 15 , 17The adjustment in the heparin dose according to the body mass index (BMI), together with the clearance of creatinine, is recommended.8 , 15Full heparinization is recommended in cases in which there is a strong clinic suspicion or confirmation of venous thromboembolism.8 , 15

Heparin is a medication that is widely used in medicine because of its anti-coagulant action and its anti-inflammatory effect. However, in COVID-19, in addition to these effects, studies have suggested the use of heparin as a way to hinder viral replication. SARS-CoV-2 connects to the ECA2 receptor in order to penetrate the human cell and multiply. It is believed that, to achieve this link, the virus also needs to connect to the heparan sulfate, among other sites, present in the endothelial membrane. The use of heparin has been suggested as a strategy of connection to heparan sulfate, hindering the connection of SARS-CoV-2 to the ECA2 receptor, thus diminishing viral replication.24

Conclusion

In sum, it is important to highlight that the endothelial function is an essential factor in the progression of the clinical stages of COVID-19. The chronic dysfunction of the endothelium, which occurs in the pre-existing diseases, directly favors the evolution toward the severe form of the disease. Therefore, while we await a vaccine, the therapeutic targets ( Table 1 ) must include the control of the cardiovascular, metabolic, and endothelial conditions of the at-risk population and the infected individuals, as well as a reduction in viral replication, hyperinflammation, and hypercoagulability.

Table 1. – Potential therapeutic targets of potential drugs to fight COVID-19. As this is about a pandemic disease, the treatment stages should occur even before people are infected by the virus. Previously published clinical trials have shown no benefits.

Stages Potential therapeutic targets Medications
Without COVID-19 Anti-hipertension drugs Mainly angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers.
Statins Simvastatin, Rosuvastatin, Atorvastatin, etc.
Anti-platelet drugs Acetyl-salicytic acid
Vaccines Multiple candidates. Research in progress.
Stage 2: Phase 1 of COVID-19 Entrance for ACE2 receptor ACE2 soluble recombinant
TMPRSS2 protease S priming Protease inhibitor (camostat mesilate)
Endocytosis of the receptor Chloroquine or Hydroxychloroquine*
RNA polymerase for replication Remdesivir, Favipiravir
Viral Proteases Lopinavir/Ritonavir*
Importin nuclear transportation Ivermectin
Stages 3 and 4: Phase 2 of COVID-19 Hyperinflammation Phase 3 of COVID-19 “Storm” of cytokines Anti-viral/anti-inflammatory Convalescent plasma of patients with COVID-19, Interferon type I, immunoglobins, mesenchymal stem cells
Activation through the excess of Interleukin 1 Anakinra, Canakinumab, Colchicine
Storm of cytokines Tocilizumab, Sarilumab, Siltuximab (IL-6 inhibitors), or baricitinib (JAK inhibitor), Lenzilumab (granulocyte- macrophage colony-stimulating fator inhibitor)
Bacterial/inflammation infection Azithromycon and other antibiotics
  Coagulopathy Full and prophylactic anti-coagulation regime.
Anti-viral/anti-inflammatory drugs Convalescent Plasma
Oxidative stress Vitamin C, Deferoxamine

*ACE 2: angiotensin-converting enzyme 2. TMPRSS2: transmembrane protease, serine 2. Source: modified from reference 10

Footnotes

Sources of Funding .There were no external funding sources for this study.


Articles from Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia are provided here courtesy of Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia

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