Table 3.
Negative impacts of azo dyes, anthraquinones and triphenylmenthane on wildlife and or cell cultures.
| Chemical Type of the Dye | Dye | Negative Impacts (Environmental or Organisms) | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| Azo | Direct blue 15 (DB15) | Larvae (Danio rerio) exposed to 100 to 500 mg L−1 showed that 96 h and 144 h after fertilisation developed a yolk sac oedema, curved tails and skeletal deformations. In addition, once degraded DB15, it produces carcinogenic amines. | [133] |
| Azo dyes inhibit the proliferation of renal epithelial cells in vitro and, depending on the dose, cause a decrease in viable cells. | [134] | ||
| Direct Black 38 (DB38) | The dye induced DNA damage at 250 mg L−1 after 48 h of exposure. This evaluation in a Daphnia magna model provided insight into the impact of the dye on the marine ecosystem. | [135] | |
| Disperse Yellow 7 (DY7) | Decreased survival of big-headed fish (Pimephales promelas) larval; some fishes succumbed between 4–10 days after hatching. The study employed 25.4 and 16.7 mg L−1 of DY7 and SRG respectively. | [125] | |
| Sudan Red G (SRG) | |||
| Disperse Red 1 (DR1) | The Ames test with DR1 and DR13 showed mutagenic activity for all Daphnia similis and Vibrio fischeri strains tested. Both dyes DR1 and DR13 were classified as very toxic to aquatic life. | [121] | |
| Disperse Red 1 (DR13) | |||
| Anthraquinone | Erythrostominone (Ery) | Exposure to Ery caused a significant reduction in the quantity of Daphnia magna neonates produced from the second to fifth brood. | [136] |
| Reactive blue 4 (RB4) | Reagent Blue 4, reduced (30–40%) Triticum sp. root length after exposure to 50–200 mg L−1. Was quantified with a 46.7 and 55.0% reduction in cell viability of HaCat and FHM cell lines, respectively. The dye was considered phytotoxic, cytotoxic and genotoxic. | [128] | |
| Vat Green 3 (VG3) | VG3 had an EC50 of 6.9 mg L−1 in Daphnia similis and an IC50 of 0.5 mg L−1 in Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata. Additionally, after 30 min of wastewater treatment with Photo-Fenton, the products generated were much more toxic than the original dye. | [137] | |
| Disperse Blue 3 (DB3) | Exposure of protozoa (Tetrahymena pyriformis) to dye DB3 increased by four hours the mean generation time, resulting in a reduction of bead ingestion by 70%. The Ames test showed a toxic effect only after metabolic activation of the protozoan. | [126] | |
| Triphenylmethane | Malachite green (MG) | Exposure of Hemichromis bimaculatus (jewfish) to 13.5 mg L−1 MG caused mortality within 24 h, and exposure to a sublethal concentration (0.75 mg L−1) resulted in the loss of the escape reflex, sluggish lateral fins, increased irritability, wriggling, surface breathing, rolling and others. | [138] |
| After 24 h exposure to 40 ng mL−1 of MG, leuco-malachite green (LMG) accumulation (~12.8% and 11%) was observed in the Zebrafish intestine and the ovary, respectively. Leuco-malachite green is a compound with carcinogenic, teratogenic and mutagenic potential. | [139] | ||
| Crystal violet (CV) | Exposure of 40 ng mL−1 of CV for 24 h accumulated 14.5% of leuco-crystal violet (LCV) in the Zebrafish intestine. LCV is a cationic with a carcinogenic, teratogenic, and mutagenic potential. | [139] | |
| Assessments of eel muscle tissue Anguilla anguilla obtained from 91 sites in Belgian rivers showed a Crystal Violet detection frequency of 58.2%; this report shows the prevalence of dyes in wildlife. | [130] |