Table 1.

Overview of the usability of various animal models [73,74].

Species	Purpose: Basic Research	Purpose: Translational Research	Similarity to Human Patient: Bone Parameters *
Mouse	To gain knowledge on molecular processes of fracture healing under physiological and pathophysiological conditions	To identify therapeutic targets, target engaged biomarkers and to evaluate the therapeutic effect of e.g., new compounds	Macrostructure + Microstructure + Remodeling +
Rat	To gain knowledge on biomechanical and molecular processes of fracture healing under physiological and pathophysiological conditions	To identify therapeutic targets, target engaged biomarkers and to evaluate the therapeutic effect of e.g., new compounds or biomaterials for therapeutic purposes	Macrostructure + Microstructure + Remodeling +
Dog	To gain knowledge on biomechanical and molecular processes of fracture healing under physiological and pathophysiological conditions	To evaluate the therapeutic effect of e.g., new compounds or biomaterials for therapeutic purposes and surgical procedures, materials and implants	Macrostructure ++ Microstructure ++ Remodeling ++
Sheep			Macrostructure +++ Microstructure + Remodeling ++
Pig			Macrostructure ++ Microstructure ++ Remodeling +++

* + similar, ++ more similar, +++ highly similar.