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. 2021 Jul 16;30(7):911–919. doi: 10.1007/s10068-021-00933-9

Effects of chitosan oligosaccharide and hyriopsis cumingii polysaccharide on the quality of wheat flour and extruded flour products

Yuan Ke 1, Beibei Ding 1, Yang Fu 1, Miaomiao Zhang 1, Shensheng Xiao 1, Wenping Ding 1, Heng Yang 1, Qingyun Lv 1, Zhuo Zheng 1, Xuedong Wang 1,✉
PMCID: PMC8302693  PMID: 34395022

Abstract

Abstract

Effects of chitosan oligosaccharide (COS) and hyriopsis cumingii polysaccharide (HCP) on the quality of wheat flour and corresponding extruded flour products were investigated in this work. The results showed that both COS and HCP are conducive to the improvement of dough quality. Moreover, compared to control group samples, the moisture content, expansion ratio and oil absorption rate of the samples were increased and the hardness were decreased with the addition of COS. These phenomena indicate the quality of extruded flour products became better in the presence of COS as well. However, HCP has little or no effect on the quality of extruded flour products may be due to its degradation under high temperature and pressure extrusion. COS with higher stability exhibited better improvement effects on the quality of extruded flour products and showed a promising prospect for application in extruded food industry.

Graphical Abstract

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Keywords: Chitosan Oligosaccharide, Hyriopsis Cumingii polysaccharide, Wheat Flour, Extruded Flour Products

Introduction

Extruded flour products are also known as spicy products, extruded pastries, and seasoned flour products. Now they have become more and more popular as a leisure product due to the unique taste of fresh, salty, spicy, and sweet with a reasonable price, especially among young people. According to a report conducted by China competition information in 2017, there were 580 enterprises producing seasoned flour products in China, with an annual output value of 33 billion yuan and market sales of 51 billion yuan. However, the production of extruded flour products involves many steps such as extrusion, expansion, cooking, cutting, seasoning, and packaging (An and Tan, 2016). Moreover, extruded flour products are confronted with the problems of aging, hardening and flavor deterioration with the extension of storage time, which also seriously affects their shelf-life. In order to improve the properties of extruded flour products, some researchers have focused on ameliorating the formulation and process of extruded flour products production. The influence of extruder’s structure parameters and material characters on the quality of spicy bar by extrusion technology was studied (Yu et al., 2017). Effects of wheat flour components, glutinous rice flour, monoglyceride and water on the quality of seasoned flour products were also investigated (Leng et al., 2019; Xia, 2018). In addition, the food additives, such as water-retaining agent (glycerinum), emulsifiers (monoglyceride) and hydrocolloids (xanthan gum), are beginning to draw more and more attention for improving the quality of extruded flour products (Yi et al., 2019). In view of the harmfulness of some food additives to human health, the exploration to healthy food additives is meaningful for extruded flour products production.

In fact, most of the polysaccharides are usually used as the potential healthy food additives due to their present low toxicity and the characteristics of thickening ability and water-holding capacity (Soua et al., 2020). Additionally, the introduction of polysaccharides could make the microstructure and rheological properties of dough change, and thus improving the appearance quality of the products (Williams and Phillips, 2009). COS is a natural animal polysaccharide as well as new food resource in China. Moreover, COS shows tantalizing promise as a healthy food additive due to the good water-solubility, hygroscopicity, moisture-retention and antimicrobial abilities (Su et al., 2005; Crini, 2005). Researchers have found that COS possesses an obvious effect on inhibiting starch aging and shows good thermal stability (Wei and Xia, 2004). Another animal polysaccharide derived from Hyriopsis cumingii also belongs to a new food resource in China. HCP has biological activities such as antitumor (Qiu et al., 2010), antioxidation (Qiao et al., 2009) and immunomodulatory (Qiao et al., 2010), showing promising application potentials in food industry as well.

Up to now, COS and HCP have not been used as the food additives in the field of extruded flour products. Herein, the effects of COS or HCP on the quality of extruded flour products were studied thoroughly. The extruded flour products were prepared by extrusion technology with wheat flour as the main material, edible oil, water, chili, salt, and spices as the auxiliary materials. The farinograph characteristics, tensile and pasting properties of wheat flour, the color, moisture content, radial expansion ratio, texture profile analysis and oil absorption rate of the extruded flour products were characterized in detail. This study will provide references for the application of COS and HCP in snack food industry.

Materials and methods

Materials

The wheat flour for extruded flour products was purchased from Henan Lotus Flour Co., Ltd. in China. The moisture, ash and crude protein contents of the flour were 12.47%, 0.79% and 10.08%, respectively (calculated on a wet basis). Additionally, COS (food grade, with a purity of more than 80%, moisture content of 9.07%) was purchased from Jinan Haidebei Marine Bioengineering Co., Ltd. in Jinan, China. HCP (food grade, with a purity of more than 70%, moisture content of 4.83%) was purchased from Xi'an Lishi Biotechnology Co., Ltd. in China. Salt was bought from a local market. Monostearin was purchased from Jialix additive Co., Ltd. in China.

Mixed powder preparation

The mixed powders were prepared by fully mixing COS or HCP in wheat flour respectively, with COS contents of 0.8 wt%, 1.6 wt%, 2.4 wt% and 3.2 wt%, and with HCP contents of 2.0 wt%, 4.0 wt%, 6.0 wt% and 8.0 wt%. The 100 wt% wheat flour formulation was used as a control group.

Characterization of mixed powder by farinograph and extensograph

The behavior of the mixed powder during dough development was measured by the Farinograph-E (Brabender GmbH & Co. KG, Germany), according to previous researches (Wang et al., 2017a, b; Li et al., 2017). The mixed powder was firstly weighed in an appropriate quantity based on its moisture content and placed into the mixing bowl. The bowl was connected to a circulating water pump and a thermostat operated at 30 ± 0.2 °C. A certain amount of water was added to make the dough attain the maximum consistency and reach a fixed value of 500 FU (± 20 FU). Three replicates were carried out for each determination. Afterwards, the dough tensile resistance and elongation were measured according to the previously reported method (Zhou et al., 2019a, b). Briefly, 6 g salt was dissolved with deionized water. Then, the appropriate quantity mixed powder was mixed for 5 ± 0.1 min with salt and water until the flour consistency of the dough reach a fixed value of 500 FU (± 20 FU). A piece of dough (150 g) was shaped into a standard cylindrical shape and moulded on the Extensograph. The sample was stored in the rest cabinet for 45 min at 30 °C. Each group was tested three times in triplicate. Data were presented as the average of three tests.

Determination of pasting properties

The pasting properties were measured by a Rapid Visco Analyzer (RVA-Super4) controlled by Thermocline software (Perten, Stockholm, Sweden) for Windows. The RVA test was conducted according to a previously reported method with minor modification (Jung et al., 2017). In brief, mixed powder (3.43 g of each sample) was weighed directly in the aluminium RVA canister, and 25 mL of distilled water was added and mixed with the mixed powder. It is equilibrated at 50 °C for 1 min, heated at a rate of 13.2 °C /min to 95 °C, held for 2.7 min, then cooled to 50 °C at a rate of 11.6 °C/min. The sample is again kept at 50 °C for 2 min. The rotating speed of the paddle remains constant at 160 rpm, except for the first 10 s with a paddle speed of 960 rpm. All measurements were replicated three times.

Extruded flour products preparation

The mixed powder was poured into the round automatic mixer (HY-YTDFJ-60, Pingjiang Hongyu Machinery Manufacturing Co., Ltd., China). Then, the mixed solution prepared by dissolving 6 wt% salt and 0.48 wt% monostearin completely in 30 wt% water was added to the mixer quickly with a high-speed whip for 30 s to form dough pieces. The obtained dough pieces were fed by a feeder (HY-WSXFJ-1050, Pingjiang Hongyu Machinery Manufacturing Co., Ltd., China) into the single screw laboratory extruder (HY-SXPHJ, Pingjiang Hongyu Machinery Manufacturing Co., Ltd., Yueyang, China). The speed of the feeder was adjusted gradually upward from 4 (about 500 g/min) to 13 (about 1625 g/min) within 30 s and kept constant throughout the test. The barrel temperature was setted at 160 °C (die side) with the screw speed of 820 rpm, and circular die diameter of 3.8 mm producing cylindrical extrudates. The residence time of the dough in the extruder under abovementioned processing conditions was estimated at 5–10 s. The extruded samples were put into a multifunctional three-layer cutting belt (HY-SCQD-4, Pingjiang Hongyu Machinery Manufacturing Co., Ltd., China), and make sure the cutting speed was consistent with the extruder's discharging speed. All the samples were sealed in a PE self-sealing bag and kept at room temperature extrusion for uniform moisture distribution.

The color of extruded flour products

The color parameters, including the brightness (L*), redness (a*) and yellowness (b*) of the extruded flour products, were determined by a colorimeter (JZ-300) (Shenzhen jinjun instrument equipment Co., Ltd., China). The test was preformed according to previous studies with minor modification (Wang et al., 2017a, b). Briefly, take a small Sect. (3 cm in diameter) of extruded flour products for the text and make sure no light leakage around the color opening. Five measurements were performed for each sample. The L* value indicates the brightness, 0–100 representing dark to light color. The a* value gives the degree of the red-green color, with a higher positive a* value indicating more redness. The b* value indicates the degree of the yellow-blue color, with a higher positive b* value indicating more yellowness.

The moisture content of extruded flour products

The sample was taken and kept in a drying oven (GZX-9070ME, Shanghai boxun industry Co., Ltd. Medical equipment factory, China) at 105 °C till constant weigh achieved, and every sample was measured at least three times to get the average value.

The radial expansion ratio of extruded flour products

The determination of expansion ratio (ER) was based on a previously reported modified method (Singha and Muthukumarappan, 2018). The ER was calculated as the cross-sectional diameter of extrudates divided by the diameter of the die opening. The diameter of the extrudate was measured at 10 different random positions by using a Vernier caliper (SYNTEK, Deqing shengtai core electronic technology Co., Ltd., China).

Texture profile analysis (TPA) of extruded flour products

Textural analysis for the texture of the Extruded flour products was evaluated on a texture analyzer (TA. Touch) (Shanghai Baosheng Industrial Development Co., Ltd., China) equipped with a TA/LKB probe. According to the previously reported method (Wang et al., 2017a, b; Lee and Hong, 2020), the texture analyser was operated under a TPA model with the pre-test speed of 1.0 mm/s, test speed of 2.0 mm/s, post-test speed of 2.0 mm/s, distance of 20.0 mm and a trigger force of 5 g. The interval of the two compressions is 5 s, and the deformation level was set as 75%. Six measurements were performed for each sample. The moisture content, expansion, and texture measurements were performed at the same time.

The oil absorption rate (OAR) of extruded flour products

The OAR of extruded flour products was tested according to a previously reported method (Jyothi et al., 2009). The extruded flour products sample was accurately weighed and put into a 50 mL centrifuge tube with 30 mL of rapeseed oil, and allow to stand for 30 min after shaking for 1 min, then, the oil-absorbing extruded flour products sample was taken out and accurately weighed. The test was measured at least three times to get the average value. The OAR of extruded flour products can be calculated by the following equation,

OAR=m2-m1/m1×100%

where m1 is the weight of extruded flour products sample (g), m2 is the weight of oil-absorbing extruded flour products sample (g).

Statistical analysis

Experiments were performed with a completely randomized design. All experiments were tested at least three times, and the means were calculated. Data are presented as the mean ± standard deviation. ORIGIN 8.5 (Origin Lab Inc., USA) was used to plot the raw data. Analysis of variance was performed, and the results were determined by one-way analysis of variance and Duncan’s multiple range test (p = 0.05). All calculations were performed with SPSS 22.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL).

Results and discussion

Farinograph test

In the mixing process of wheat flour and water, the water absorption index reflects the characteristics of water absorption of wheat flour (Zhou et al., 2019a, b), depending on the ability of gluten protein and starch to combine water. As shown in Table. 1, water absorption of the samples containing COS or HCP was lower than that of the control group and showed a significant decrease (p < 0.05). These results are similar with the previous report that water absorption of wheat flour was decreased with the introduction of inulin (Karolini-Skaradzinska et al., 2007). This behaviour indicates that a relatively less amount of water was required for the wheat flour containing COS or HCP in dough development. One plausible explanation is that polysaccharide molecules tend to interact with gluten and thus enhancing the dough consistency (Kotoki and Deka, 2010). The other reason is that the starch granules were surrounded by low molecular weight polysaccharides, hence, a barrier was formed to block the interactions between water molecules and starch granules, resulting in a decrease in the water absorption of wheat flour (Karolini-Skaradzinska et al., 2007).

Table. 1.

Effects of COS or HCP on the gelatinization and farinograph characteristics of wheat flour and on colour parameters of extruded flour products

PS Content WA/% DT/min DF/FU PV/BU SBV/BU PT/°C L* a* b*
0.0 wt% 64.1 ± 0.1a 1.9 ± 0.2c 40.7 ± 1.2a 2188.00 ± 27.62a 1412.67 ± 18.56a 86.38 ± 0.03b 56.5 ± 0.6a 3.2 ± 0.2a 13.6 ± 0.6a
C 0.8 wt% 62.6 ± 0.2b 4.9 ± 0.3b 37.7 ± 1.5a 2017.33 ± 24.11b 1360.67 ± 0.58b 87.47 ± 0.42a 55.5 ± 0.9b 4.8 ± 0.3b 16.5 ± 0.5b
O 1.6 wt% 61.0 ± 0.1c 5.0 ± 0.2b 34.3 ± 1.2b 2014.67 ± 13.05b 1334.67 ± 7.37c 87.58 ± 0.43a 55.1 ± 0.4b 5.3 ± 0.3c 17.2 ± 0.7bc
S 2.4 wt% 59.6 ± 0.2d 6.2 ± 0.2a 32.0 ± 2.6b 2007.67 ± 18.50b 1327.00 ± 16.46c 87.47 ± 0.42a 53.6 ± 0.8c 6.0 ± 0.2d 17.9 ± 0.2c
3.2 wt% 58.7 ± 0.1e 6.4 ± 0.2a 26.3 ± 1.5c 2007.00 ± 25.71b 1289.00 ± 13.00d 87.32 ± 0.67a 53.2 ± 0.9c 6.6 ± 0.4e 19.1 ± 0.6d
0.0 wt% 64.1 ± 0.1a 1.9 ± 0.2e 40.7 ± 1.2a 2188.00 ± 27.62a 1412.67 ± 18.56a 86.38 ± 0.03c 56.5 ± 0.6a 3.2 ± 0.2e 13.6 ± 0.6c
H 2.0 wt% 61.1 ± 0.2b 4.3 ± 0.1d 40.3 ± 0.6a 1914.00 ± 16.64b 1355.33 ± 2.52b 87.73 ± 0.51b 52.2 ± 0.8b 6.6 ± 0.2d 16.5 ± 0.2b
C 4.0 wt% 58.2 ± 0.2c 5.4 ± 0.1c 39.3 ± 1.5bc 1836.00 ± 26.96c 1333.67 ± 23.44b 88.00 ± 0.05ab 47.3 ± 0.5c 8.4 ± 0.2c 17.9 ± 0.1a
P 6.0 wt% 55.4 ± 0.1d 5.9 ± 0.1b 37.3 ± 2.5bc 1734.33 ± 24.54d 1297.33 ± 17.62c 88.02 ± 0.08ab 43.6 ± 0.3d 9.1 ± 0.2b 18.0 ± 0.2a
8.0 wt% 53.1 ± 0.2e 6.3 ± 0.2a 36.7 ± 2.3c 1606.67 ± 10.02e 1243.00 ± 14.42d 88.57 ± 0.45a 41.2 ± 0.4e 9.6 ± 0.1a 18.2 ± 0.5a
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Different letters in the same column indicate significant differences (p < 0.05). PS = Polysaccharide, WA = Water absorption (%), DT = Development time (min), DF = Degree of softening (FU), PV = peak viscosity (BU), SBV = Setback viscosity (BU), PT = Pasting temperature (°C)

COS and HCP derived from crab and hyriopsis cumingii were used to improve the quality of wheat flour and extruded flour products

Dough development time refers to the time lapse between the point of first water addition and the point at which first indication of dough weakening is detected (Sim et al., 2013). As shown in Table. 1, the dough development time was drastically lengthened from 1.9 min to nearly 6.4 min when the COS contents were increased. And the samples containing HCP show a similar trend. The longer the dough development time, the stronger the toughness, and correspondingly the dough has a stronger gluten network and presents better quality attributes (Hadnaev et al., 2011). Therefore, the processing properties of dough can be improved with the introduction of low molecular weight COS or HCP. The conclusion is consistent with previous studies on the addition of dietary fiber, that also requires a longer mixing period for optimal dough development (Ajila et al., 2008). This phenomenon can be attributed to the water holding capacity of COS or HCP is much stronger than that of wheat flour, and COS or HCP will compete with wheat flour for water, thus inhibiting the expansion of starch molecules and reducing the water absorption rate of wheat flour. The time required to achieve the dynamic balance was increased accordingly.

The softening degree of dough is related to the mechanical stirring resistance of dough that is used to evaluate the degree of dough resistance. Dough resistance towards mechanical damage is lower with greater degree of softening (DF) (Almeida et al., 2010). As shown in Table. 1, DF shows an opposite trend with dough development time. When the content of COS was over 0.8 wt% and HCP was over 2.0 wt%, the degree of softing showed a significant decrease with the increase of COS or HCP content. The decrease of the degree of softening indicates that the gluten protein strength increases, and the kneading resistance of dough increases as well. The main reason is that the consistency of dough increases with addition of COS or HCP. Thus, the interaction between polysaccharides and proteins were strengthened, which is involved in the formation of gluten protein network structure and more disulfide bonds (Morris and Morris, 2012).

Tensile test

A tensile test is used to simulate the extension and stretching process of dough (Ahmed and Thomas, 2015). The area under the stretching curve is also the tensile energy, indicating the strength of dough. It can be seen from Figs. 1 (A) and (B) that the tensile energy increases significantly when the content of COS is over 2.4 wt%. While the tensile energy increases gradually with the increase of HCP content. According to the report, a higher value of tensile energy indicating greater dough strength, and the tensile energy variation of dough indicates that the introduction of polysaccharides can increase the tensile strength of dough (Ahmed and Thomas, 2015). This phenomenon is attributed to the formation of colloids with a higher viscoelasticity after the COS and HCP absorbing water.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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The energy and RMax of wheat flour change with COS (a) or HCP (b) concentration. Note: Different letters in the same color indicate significant differences (p < 0.05)

Maximum extension resistance (RMax) refers to the resistance when dough is stretched by external force, and the extensional properties of dough can also be used to evaluate the dough quality (Caffe-Treml et al., 2011). As shown in Fig. 1a, b, the RMax of the samples containing COS or HCP was higher than that of the control group. Wheat flour with COS or HCP showed a significant increase in the RMax when compared to the control sample (p < 0.05). A higher value of Rmax indicates greater dough strength (Ahmed and Thomas, 2015). This result suggested that the dough structure has been enhanced with the introduction of COS or HCP. Considering this observation, it was speculated that COS and HCP are involved in the formation of gluten network structure and make the extensional resistance of dough increase (Hager et al., 2011; Filipovic et al., 2010). On the other hand, the phenomenon also can be caused by the hardening of dough (Ktenioudaki et al., 2011).

Pasting properties

Peak viscosity is the balance point among the swelling of starch granules during heating, resulting in the change of viscosity due to the rearrangement of polymers (Chantaro and Pongsawatmanit, 2010). The peak viscosity is a parameter related to the capacity of starch to absorb water and the swelling of starch granules during the gelatinization process (Oro et al., 2013). As shown in Table. 1, with the introduction of COS or HCP, the peak viscosity is reduced gradually. It is indicated that the swelling of starch granules was inhibited in the presence of COS or HCP, thus resulting in the decrease of viscosity. The reason for this may be that COS or HCP can compete with starch for water molecules, the water absorption of wheat flour was reduced and the swelling of the starch particles was limited with addition of COS or HCP, and thus reducing the viscosity of the system. It is also possible that polysaccharides can dilute the starch mixture, which results in a decrease in viscosity (Sharma and Gujral, 2014).

The setback viscosity reflects the degree of recrystallization of starch molecules after gelatinization of wheat flour, which also reflects the aging degree of starch (Matignon and Tecante, 2017). From Table. 1, the setback viscosity was negatively correlated with COS or HCP content. The setback viscosity of the samples containing COS or HCP was lower than that of the control group and showed a similar significant decrease trend (p < 0.05). It is indicated that the introduction of COS and HCP can slow down the starch retrogradation process. The decrease of setback viscosity may be due to the accumulation of many water molecules after adding COS or HCP, which can lead to competition with starch molecules in the gelatinization process. Hence, the starch molecules cannot fully absorb water and expand, and the aging rate becomes slower accordingly.

The color of extruded flour products

Color is an important characteristic for extruded foods. A change in color can provide important information such as browning, caramelization, Maillard reaction, degree of cooking and pigment degradation occurs during the extrusion process (Anton et al., 2008; Altan et al., 2008). As shown in Table. 1, with the increase of COS or HCP content, the brightness (L*) of extruded flour products decreased, whereas the redness (a*) and yellowness (b*) increased. The Maillard reaction is a reaction between a carbonyl compound (reducing sugars) and an amino compound (amino acids and proteins), which can lead to the darkening of the extruded products (Toda et al., 2014). HCP contains carbonyl group and a certain amount of reducing sugars can be produced at high temperature and pressure extrusion process, thus promoting the Maillard reaction and making the red and yellow tones rise. However, the thermal stability of COS is stable, and the change of color of extruded flour products may be because the color of COS itself is darker than that of wheat flour. Therefore, the introduction of COS (yellow) to wheat flour (white) brings about the color shift. A similar phenomenon occurs when okara flour (white) is added to maize flour (yellow) (Shi et al., 2011).

The moisture content of extruded flour products

During the test, the control group and each experimental group have the same moisture content. Due to the large difference in temperature inside and outside the cylinder of the single-screw extruder, when extrusion-cooked melts exit the die, they suddenly move from high pressure to atmospheric pressure. The pressure drop causes a flash-off of internal moisture (Arhaliass et al., 2003). A large amount of moisture in extruded flour products will be vaporized after passing through the die head. As shown in Fig. 2, with the increase of COS content, the moisture content showed an increasing trend, while the moisture content showed a slightly decreasing trend with the increase of HCP content. It is speculated that COS has many hydroxyl groups and shows strong water-retention and water-holding capacities, so that the moisture content of extruded flour products containing COS is higher than that of the control. This result also suggested that COS could hinder the loss of water to a certain extent and delay the aging of extruded flour products. Oat glucan also showed the delaying effect on the aging of flour products (Sabanis et al., 2009). However, HCP may occur decompose during high temperature and pressure extrusion according to the result of extruded flour products color, which promoted the Maillard reaction and made the moisture content of extruded flour products decrease.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

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The moisture content of extruded flour products changes with COS or HCP concentration Note: Different letters in the same color indicate significant differences (p < 0.05)

The radial expansion ratio of extruded flour products

The radial expansion ratio of extrudates was used to describe the puffing degree of the product as it exited the extruder (Singh et al., 2008). In this study, the higher the radial expansion ratio, the better the quality of extruded flour products. As shown in Fig. 3, with the increase of COS content, the radial expansion ratio of extruded flour products showed an increasing trend, which may be due to the influence of COS on the pore structure of extruded flour products as the dough gluten network structure can be enhanced by COS. However, with the increase of HCP content, the radial expansion ratio of extruded flour products decreased apparently. This result corresponds to the moisture content of extruded flour products. Possibly because the expansion degree of food is related to the vapor pressure of water and the greater capacity for steam formation may lead to the collapse of the cellular structure (Singh et al., 2007; Cunha et al., 2014).

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

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The radial expansion ratio of extruded flour products changes with COS or HCP concentration. Note: Different letters in the same color indicate significant differences (p < 0.05)

The textural properties of extruded flour products

Hardness (H) of the expanded extrudates is a sensory perception of the human being and is associated with expansion and cell structure of the product (Meng et al., 2010). Hardness and elasticity are important to evaluate extruded flour products. In texture testing, hardness directly affects the chewability. It can be seen from Fig. 4a and (b) that the chewability property of the sample shows the same variation trend with its hardness. The hardness of samples showed a decreasing trend with the increase of COS content. Perhaps because COS has water retention and delays the aging speed of extruded flour products. It may be related to many hydroxyl groups of COS, which can effectively bind water molecules, reduce water loss, keep products soft and reduce the hardness (Ma et al., 2019). However, with the increase of HCP content, the hardness of samples tends to increase. This result is correlate to the radial expansion ratio of extruded flour products. Choudhary and Gautam (Choudhury and Gautam, 2006) also reported that the product hardness has a negative relationship with radial expansion ratio. This may be due to the formation of a dense product and thus increasing the hardness (Ding et al., 2005).

Fig. 4.

Fig. 4

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The hardness and chewiness of extruded flour products changes with COS (a) or HCP (b) concentration. Note: Different letters in the same column indicate significant differences (p < 0.05)

The oil absorption rate of extruded flour products

Extruded flour products, as a seasoned flour product, the mixture is an essential and important step. The oil gives the flavor and color of the extruded product, and endows the extruded flour products with a "sense of explosive juice". The oil can slow down the moisture loss of extruded flour products, and play the role of lubrication, so that the extruded flour products can remain soft. The higher oil absorption rate of extruded flour products, the better taste of the product. Figure 5 indicates that COS and HCP influence oil absorption rate of extruded flour products. With the increase of COS content, the oil absorption rate of extruded flour products presented an overall increasing trend. The oil absorption rate of extruded flour products in the control group was higher than that of the sample containing HCP. This is consistent with the change of expansion ratio of extruded flour products. The possible reason is that COS influences the pore structure of extruded flour products. With a high expansion ratio, the pore of the product is more and larger and oil molecules are more easily absorbed in the samples, so they appear to have less hard cell walls (Bisharat et al., 2014). With the addition of HCP, the gluten network structure of the product is more compact, the pores are smaller, so the oil cannot enter the inside of extruded flour products in large quantities. The rupture of cell walls and the absence of the expansion of air bubbles during extrusion were the main causes for the low pore size of the final products (Bisharat et al., 2013), which led to a lower oil absorption rate.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 5

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The oil absorption rate of extruded flour products changes with COS or HCP concentration. Note: Different letters in the same color indicate significant differences (p < 0.05)

Conclusion

In summary, the introduction of COS or HCP to wheat flour resulted in a stronger gluten network of dough and slowed down the retrogradation process of starch. These features are conducive to the improvement of dough quality. The quality of extruded flour products also became better in the presence of COS. However, HCP has little or no effect on the quality of extruded flour products may be due to its degradation under high temperature and pressure extrusion. These facts suggested that COS exhibited a better effect on extruded flour products and showed a promising prospect for the further application in extruded food industry.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the financial support from The National Key Research and Development Program of China, Grant/Award Number: 2016YFD0400701.

Declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no competing financial interest.

Footnotes

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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