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Chinese Journal of Reparative and Reconstructive Surgery logoLink to Chinese Journal of Reparative and Reconstructive Surgery
. 2019 May;33(5):644–649. [Article in Chinese] doi: 10.7507/1002-1892.201810122

儿童及青少年脊柱畸形矫形围术期疼痛管理的研究进展

Progress in perioperative pain management of pediatric and adolescent spinal deformity corrective surgery

Haozhong WANG 1, Peng XIU 1, Lei WANG 1, Yueming SONG 1,*
PMCID: PMC8337207  PMID: 31090362

Abstract

Objective

To review the advances in perioperative pain management of pediatric and adolescent spinal deformity corrective surgery.

Methods

Regular analgesics, drug administrations, and analgesic regimens were reviewed and summarized by consulting domestic and overseas related literatures about perioperative pain management of pediatric and adolescent spinal deformity corrective surgery in recent years.

Results

As for perioperative analgesis regimens of pediatric and adolescent spinal deformity corrective surgery, regular analgesics include non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, opioids, antiepileptic drugs, adrenergic agonists, and local anesthetic, etc. Besides drug administration by mouth, intravenous injection, and intramuscular injection, the administration also includes patient controlled analgesia, epidural injection, and intrathecal injection. Multimodal analgesia is the most important regimen currently.

Conclusion

Heretofore, a number of perioperative pain managements of pediatric and adolescent spinal deformity corrective surgery have been applied clinically, but the ideal regimen has not been developed. To design a safe and effective analgesic regimen needs further investigations.

Keywords: Pediatric, adolescent, spinal deformity, perioperative, pain management, multimodal analgesia


常见的脊柱畸形包括特发性脊柱侧凸、先天性脊柱侧凸、脊柱后凸等,好发于儿童和青少年[1]。手术治疗仍然是常用治疗方式之一[2],但脊柱畸形手术时间长、创伤大,且儿童对疼痛刺激较敏感,术后常发生剧烈疼痛。术后疼痛不仅降低患儿舒适度,阻碍术后恢复和早期康复锻炼,增加恶心呕吐和睡眠障碍风险[3],还可能导致术后远期持续性疼痛[4]。因此,围术期疼痛管理对于脊柱畸形患儿的手术治疗至关重要。对于脊柱畸形的疼痛管理,镇痛药物仍然是围术期切口疼痛管理的主流方式之一,其中阿片类药物是疼痛管理中不可替代的一种药物,但围术期阿片类药物用量是脊柱畸形患儿术后长期(6 周~8 个月)使用阿片类药物的一个危险因素,且有导致药物滥用及成瘾的风险[5]。因此,通过新的研究或替代方案减少阿片类药物用量是一个重要课题[5],而多模式镇痛基本能满足有较好镇痛效果和减少阿片类药物用量的需求。

与一般成人脊柱术后疼痛相比,儿童及青少年脊柱畸形矫形术后疼痛有以下 3 个特点:① 手术切口长,组织损伤多,术后常有剧烈疼痛;② 儿童及青少年比成人对疼痛更敏感,且儿童常不能正确主诉疼痛,给疼痛评估带来困难[6];③ 很多镇痛药物说明书缺乏青少年及儿童临床应用安全性的资料,因需要兼顾有效性和安全性,可供临床医师选择的合适镇痛药物十分有限。本文拟对近年来儿童和青少年脊柱畸形矫形围术期疼痛管理的研究进展进行综述,为临床医师提供参考。

1. 脊柱畸形围术期常用镇痛药物

目前临床上用于儿童及青少年脊柱畸形矫形围术期镇痛药物主要有以下几类。

1.1. 非甾体抗炎药(non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs,NSAIDs)

NSAIDs 是一种临床上最常使用的周围性镇痛药物,主要作用机制是抑制体内环氧化酶的活性、减少局部组织前列腺素的合成,达到镇痛目的。大量临床研究证实,围术期使用 NSAIDs 能有效缓解术后切口疼痛,减少阿片类药物用量。一项针对儿童及青少年脊柱侧凸畸形围术期镇痛药物选择的调查发现,59%的麻醉师在术后第 3 天开始使用至少 4 d 的 NSAIDs 用于切口镇痛,如酮咯酸(Ketorolac)和布洛芬(Ibuprofen)[7]。但是,我国很多 NSAIDs 药物说明书明确指出,目前缺乏 18 岁以下青少年及儿童临床应用的有效性和安全性资料,且频繁使用 NSAIDs(如酮咯酸)可能引起骨科术后住院患儿发生急性肝损伤(17%)[8]。目前,儿童脊柱畸形矫形围术期 NSAIDs 的药物管理尚无统一标准[7],因此临床医师需要慎重选择合适的 NSAIDs,在使用过程中还需要严密观察患儿的不良反应。

1.2. 阿片类药物

阿片类药物是目前最强效的中枢性镇痛药,通过与大脑、脊髓和外周组织的 μ、δ 阿片受体介导镇痛、镇静效果。Koch[9]回顾了 85 例脊柱畸形患儿围术期镇痛药物使用情况,哌替啶(Pethidine)、哌腈米特(Piritramide)和镇痛新(Pentacocine)等是临床医师最常用的中枢性镇痛药。王芳等[10]指出,吗啡用于小儿脊柱侧凸畸形围术期的镇痛效果较好,且对循环和呼吸系统的影响较小。阿片类药物能兴奋延髓的呕吐中心及抑制胃肠平滑肌的蠕动,因此恶心、呕吐、便秘等副作用发生率较高,而且长期使用阿片类药物有成瘾风险,所以围术期镇痛方案需要尽可能减少阿片类药物用量。

1.3. 抗癫痫药物

抗癫痫药物的镇痛机制目前尚不明确,其化学结构与 γ-氨基丁酸(gamma-aminobutyric acid,GABA)类似,GABA 类似物可显著降低特发性脊柱侧凸患儿长时间静脉使用阿片类药物的可能[11]。近年来,很多临床试验也证实抗癫痫药物中的加巴喷丁能改善脊柱侧凸畸形患儿围术期疼痛,减少阿片类药物用量[12-14]

1.4. 肾上腺素受体激动剂和局部麻醉药

右美托咪啶是一种肾上腺素受体激动剂,通过选择激活 α2 肾上腺素能受体直接作用于外周神经、抑制疼痛信号向大脑传递,常用于重症监护室中脊柱侧凸畸形术后患儿的镇痛、镇静。局部麻醉药作用于局部神经末梢或神经干周围,在意识清醒的条件下可使局部痛觉等感觉暂时消失。常用的局部麻醉药有罗哌卡因、布比卡因等。

2. 脊柱畸形围术期镇痛药物给药方式

不同的给药方式会影响药物的吸收与代谢,常见的给药方式包括口服、静脉注射、静脉滴注、肌肉注射、直肠给药、静脉自控镇痛(patient controlled analgesia,PCA)、硬膜外注射、鞘内注射、超前镇痛等。口服药物最方便,但起效较慢;静脉注射起效迅速,常用于病情危急时;肌肉注射吸收好,起效较迅速,但患儿容易对肌肉注射时的疼痛产生恐惧心理而拒绝用药;直肠给药可避免药物被肝脏代谢,也常用于拒绝服药或有呕吐现象的患儿。近年来,PCA、硬膜外注射、鞘内注射、超前镇痛等几种新的给药方式在临床应用越来越广泛。

2.1. PCA

PCA 通过向静脉内持续性注射镇痛药物,使血药浓度维持一个较恒定水平,当患者感觉疼痛加重时,可通过单次按压增加输注剂量。锁定时间可防止短时间内大剂量药物进入患儿体内,为患儿安全提供保障。如果患儿因理解能力不足以自行控制,或术后因上肢虚弱无法使用传统 PCA 时,护士控制镇痛也是一种可以接受的替代方式[15]

2.2. 硬膜外注射

硬膜外注射在儿童及青少年脊柱侧凸畸形围术期的应用被证实安全、有效,并且可减少阿片类药物用量,相关药物不良反应也随之降低。1989 年,Amaranath 等[16]的回顾性研究首次指出,特发性脊柱侧凸患儿术后予以间断硬膜外注射吗啡,能在术后早期提供持久、良好的镇痛效果,吗啡用量也显著低于传统静脉注射方式。其镇痛效果还与硬膜外导管数量、镇痛药的间隔时间有关。双导管硬膜外注射罗哌卡因和二氢吗啡酮,其镇痛效果优于单导管硬膜外注射和静脉注射[17-18];间歇性硬膜外注射与持续性硬膜外注射相比,能减少吗啡用量和副作用发生率,并能达到相同的镇痛效果[19]

2.3. 鞘内注射

鞘内注射通过导管把镇痛药物注射到脑脊液中,镇痛药物随着脑脊液的循环流动到达作用位点发挥镇痛作用,且不会对患者的感觉运动产生影响。鞘内注射吗啡在脊柱侧凸畸形围术期也是一种有效的疼痛管理方式[20],但需注意吗啡的剂量,中等剂量的吗啡(9~19 mg/kg)可在术后早期提供安全有效的镇痛效果,高剂量的吗啡并不显著增加镇痛效果,却增加患儿呼吸抑制发生率[21]。一些研究指出,鞘内注射吗啡可在术后 48 h 内获得较好的镇痛效果、减少阿片类药物用量以及维持较好的氧饱和指数,并能帮助患者缩短住院时间、早期拔尿管和康复锻炼[22-23]

2.4. 超前镇痛

超前镇痛是指在手术开始前使用镇痛药物以抑制围术期疼痛[24]。Machida 等[25]的一项随机对照试验指出,30 例青少年特发性脊柱侧凸患者在麻醉前开始使用持续皮下吗啡注射(20 mg/d),与未使用吗啡的空白对照组相比,试验组术后平均疼痛语言反应评分(VRS)和疼痛视觉模拟评分(VAS)明显更低,而且处理爆发性疼痛的镇痛药物用量也相应减少,说明超前镇痛在脊柱畸形围术期是一种简单、安全、有效的镇痛方法。

3. 脊柱畸形围术期镇痛方案

围术期的镇痛方案从既往的单一镇痛药物方案逐渐发展至多模式镇痛方案,其目的是在安全、有效镇痛的基础上,尽可能减少阿片类药物用量。多模式镇痛方案是疼痛管理的重要方法之一。

3.1. 单一药物镇痛方案

因儿童和青少年脊柱侧凸畸形手术创面大,术后疼痛剧烈,选择单一药物镇痛时一般用阿片类等较强效镇痛药。国内外一些研究报道,吗啡或芬太尼 PCA 均可在小儿脊柱侧凸畸形术后显著缓解切口疼痛[26-27]。一项回顾性研究指出,脊柱畸形术后使用鞘内注射或硬膜外注射吗啡的镇痛效果优于静脉使用吗啡[28],但期间需要密切关注患儿呼吸抑制等严重并发症[29]。Hong 等[30]的一项回顾性研究指出,特发性脊柱侧凸术后予以硬膜外注射二羟吗啡酮有一定镇痛效果,可帮助患儿术后第 1、2 天下床早期活动,但术后 24 h 内不良反应发生率较高。单一使用阿片类药物用于围术期镇痛可达到较好的镇痛效果,但不能降低阿片类药物用量,成瘾风险和相应的不良反应也随之增加,因而这种镇痛模式正逐步被淘汰。

3.2. NSAIDs+阿片类药物

这是目前临床最常见的镇痛模式,以 NSAIDs 作为基础镇痛药,辅佐阿片类药物发挥镇痛效果。常用的 NSAIDs 包括对乙酰氨基酚、酮咯酸、氟比洛芬酯等;常用的阿片类药物有吗啡、二氢吗啡酮等。

一些临床试验指出,青少年脊柱侧凸畸形术后用对乙酰氨基酚辅助羟考酮或吗啡镇痛,可让患者术后长时间处于轻度或中度疼痛水平,但并不会减少阿片类药物用量[31-32]。但一项队列研究指出,静脉使用对乙酰氨基酚辅助阿片类药物镇痛,不仅能达到较好的镇痛效果,还能减少阿片类药物用量及相关副作用,缩短住院时间,降低住院总费用[33]。对乙酰氨基酚的副作用也不可忽略,一个病案报道指出,1 例 16 岁重度脊柱侧凸畸形男性患者,术后予以总剂量 3 500 mg 对乙酰氨基酚治疗术后发热,因药物的肝毒性导致患者出现爆发性肝衰竭而死亡[34]

Munro 等[35]的一项前瞻性随机对照双盲试验发现,青少年脊柱侧凸畸形行后路脊柱融合术后,低剂量酮咯酸(0.5 mg/kg,最大剂量 15 mg)辅助吗啡 PCA,能提高术后第 1、2 天的镇痛效果,减少吗啡用量,且不增加 NSAIDs 相关的副作用。既往研究报道,成人脊柱融合术后使用大剂量酮咯酸会降低骨融合率;但一些回顾性研究指出,脊柱侧凸畸形术后予以酮咯酸镇痛的患儿,随访结果提示酮咯酸并不增加其骨不愈合率、假关节发生率和内固定失败率,亦不加快矫形后侧凸畸形的进展[36-38]

国内一些研究指出,一日 2 次静脉用氟比洛芬酯 50 mg 辅助芬太尼 PCA 在儿童及青少年脊柱侧凸畸形矫形术后的镇痛安全有效,增加氟比洛芬酯用量并不能增强镇痛效果,但麻醉方式、术中出血量、心率、术前血红蛋白等因素均可影响氟比洛芬酯的术后镇痛效果[39-41]

儿童及青少年脊柱畸形矫形围术期,在有效镇痛的前提下,建议临床医师应尽量缩短术后 NSAIDs 药物的使用时间、减少使用剂量。

3.3. 局部麻醉药+NSAIDs+阿片类药物

Kwan 等[42]的一项前瞻性队列研究指出,青少年特发性脊柱侧凸术后予以布比卡因局部浸润伤口,口服塞来昔布(200 mg,1~2 次/d)辅助吗啡 PCA,可使患者在术后第 4 天达到能忍受的疼痛水平,术后第 7 天达到轻度疼痛或无痛。持续伤口镇痛装置通过持续局部渗透给予局部麻醉药至手术区域达到镇痛效果,被认为是一种安全有效的新镇痛方式,可改善术后疼痛情况和减少住院时间[43-44]。一项回顾性研究指出,特发性脊柱侧凸患儿行脊柱融合术后,口服阿片类药物和对乙酰氨基酚,并用布比卡因持续伤口镇痛装置辅助,与无局部镇痛装置的空白组相比,术后 24 h 内可减少约 0.5 mg/kg 阿片类药物用量[45]

3.4. 局部麻醉药+阿片类药物

前路或后路脊柱畸形矫形术后,从硬膜外导管注射罗哌卡因或布比卡因和阿片类药物的混合液,不仅可以改善术后疼痛情况,还能有效缓解爆发性疼痛[46-47]。Gauger 等[48]的一项随机对照试验指出,用患者自控硬膜外镇痛模式(0.1%布比卡因和10 mg/mL 二氢吗啡酮,8 mL/h)还能减少术后肌肉强直发生率和安定药物用量。一些临床试验和 Meta 分析指出,硬膜外持续注射局部麻醉药能提供很好的术后镇痛效果和交感神经阻滞,提高术后舒适度,有利于肠鸣音的恢复和减少呕吐等不良反应[49-51]

3.5. 肾上腺素受体激动剂+阿片类药物

右美托咪啶是一种高选择性的 α2 肾上腺素受体激动剂,通过直接作用于外周神经、抑制疼痛信号向大脑传递等机制,产生轻、中度镇痛作用,常用于重症监护室需要机械通气的儿童及青少年患者[52]。姬乐婷等[53]通过比较舒芬太尼联合不同浓度右美托咪啶在小儿脊柱侧凸畸形矫正术后的镇痛效果,发现 0.08 μg/(kg·h)右美托咪啶联合 0.02 μg/(kg·h)舒芬太尼的术后镇痛效果最佳,同时具有良好安全性。一项随机对照试验指出,脊柱侧凸畸形术后需机械通气的患儿,用右美托咪啶维持镇痛效果优于咪达唑仑,并能减少芬太尼用量,降低谵妄发生率[54]。但 Jones 等[43]的一项回顾性研究发现,脊柱侧凸畸形术后使用右美托咪啶并不能减少阿片类药物用量。因此,儿童及青少年脊柱畸形矫形术后如需机械通气,推荐使用安全剂量的右美托咪啶。

3.6. 抗癫痫药物+阿片类药物±NSAIDs

近年来,越来越多的临床医师和麻醉医师认识到,加巴喷丁在围术期使用时不仅有镇痛作用,还具有抗惊厥、抗过敏、抗焦虑作用。一个随机双盲试验结果显示,围术期口服加巴喷丁辅助阿片类药物镇痛,能减少脊柱侧凸畸形术后阿片类药物用量和改善术后早期的疼痛语言描述评分(NRS),但不会降低阿片类药物副作用的发生率[14]。术后联合加巴喷丁和 NSAIDs,不仅能显著改善脊柱侧凸畸形术后每日平均疼痛评分,还能帮助患儿早期拔尿管、下床活动、减少住院时间[12-13],尤其能帮助患儿早期完成最具挑战的康复锻炼目标——爬楼梯[55]。但也有研究指出,术前单次使用加巴喷丁并不会帮助脊柱侧凸畸形患儿术后有更好的镇痛效果、减少吗啡使用量[56]。论证加巴喷丁在脊柱畸形矫形围术期疼痛管理是否有效,仍需要进行更多试验。

目前,越来越多研究证实,围术期多模式镇痛方案可显著提高儿童及青少年脊柱畸形矫形术后早期的生活质量,有利于患儿早期康复。在追求安全、有效的围术期镇痛技术和镇痛药物上,医护人员仍需付出更多的努力。

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