Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Food Science and Biotechnology logoLink to Food Science and Biotechnology
. 2021 Jul 23;30(8):1025–1031. doi: 10.1007/s10068-021-00944-6

Phosphine residues and physicochemical stability of Hwangtae after fumigation

Hye Young Shin 1, Ji Seop An 1, Ji Min Lee 1, Sang Guan You 1, Il Shik Shin 1,✉
PMCID: PMC8364617  PMID: 34471557

Abstract

This study detected phosphine residues and the qualitative effect of phosphine fumigation on Hwangtae (yellowish-dried Alaska pollock). Four types of Hwangtae products commercially purchased were investigated to assess phosphine residue. Hwangtae was fumigated at both laboratory scale, at an aluminum phosphide rate of 33.6 g/m3, and large scale (1.68 g/m3) to evaluate phosphine residue and dissipation. Further, nutritional composition analyses between pre- and post-fumigated Hwangtae were conducted. The concentration of phosphine residues was lower than the detection limit (0.005 mg/kg) in all Hwangtae products. After fumigation in laboratory scale, phosphine residue was 2.47 mg/kg, and after fumigation in large scale, the residue was 3.25 mg/kg. After 3-d aeration in the open air, there was no residue detected from fumigated Hwangtae. Nutritional composition, including proximate, mineral, and amino acid compositions, did not differ (P > 0.05) between pre- and post-fumigated Hwangtae. Overall, Hwangtae did not demonstrate a phosphine residue problem after the proper aeration process, and phosphine did not alter the nutritional composition, suggesting the use of phosphine as a fumigant to protect Hwangtae from insect pests.

Keywords: Hwangtae, Fumigation, Aluminum phosphide, Phosphine, Residue

Introduction

Hwangtae is a dried Alaska pollock (Gadus chalcogrammus) with a yellowish-brown color (Kim, 2007). In the drying process, Alaska pollock have their internal organs removed before being dried, and are repeatedly frozen and thawed, hanging on a log, for over 3–4 months exposed to the frigid winter winds at a temperature below 10 °C; during the process, the fish turn yellow and finally may be termed “Hwangtae.” They are packed into large net bags and kept in storage to age for 1–2 months before any further preprocessing or distribution to sale (Gangwon Province, 2018). During the storage period at room temperature (20 °C), Hwangtae often becomes infested with black carpet beetles (Attagenus unicolor); insect pest infestation in dried fish results in quantitative and qualitative losses (Awoyemi, 1991; Haines and Rees, 2020; Khan and Khan, 2001).

To prevent losses induced by pests in the stored product, many conventional measures and alternatives have been followed, such as contact insecticide treatments (Arthur, 2012), fumigation (Bramavath et al., 2017), physical methods (Vincent et al., 2009), a modified or controlled atmosphere (Jayas and Jeyamkondan, 2002), and essential oil treatment (Campolo et al., 2018). Among these, fumigation is the practice of applying a gaseous pesticide directly to commodities or part or all of a structure, including vehicles used to store, handle, process, or transport raw commodities or finished food products (Phillips et al., 2012). A fumigant is a toxic chemical or mixture of compounds that kills pests as a volatile gas within a range of temperatures (Phillips et al., 2012). Hagstrum et al. (2013) reported that fumigants are inexpensive, widely used, and leave little chemical residue after clearing, but do not provide long-term protection.

However, proper fumigant usage provides a high level of mortality and leaves no chemical residue on grain or food (Phillips et al., 2012). Among fumigants, phosphine is widely used worldwide to control insects, and it is an alternative for methyl bromide, which was banned in developed countries in 2005 (Fields and White, 2002). Generally, it is produced from either aluminum phosphide (AlP) or magnesium phosphide in the presence of atmospheric moisture; the occurrence of the chemical reaction is shown in Eq. 1 (Davis, 2003):

Metallic phosphide+3 H2O→metallicOH3+phosphine gas 1

Phosphine penetrates deeply and diffuses rapidly into materials, including large bulks of grain or tightly packed materials (CEPA, 2014). Generally, aluminum and magnesium phosphide are used for indoor fumigation of raw agricultural commodities, animal feeds, processed food commodities, and non-food commodities in sealed containers or structures to control insects (US EPA, 1998). However, phosphine fumigation is commonly used to control pests in dried fish, and does not affect the flavor or smell of dried fish at a dosage of 1.5 g phosphine/m3 for 5 d (Rajendran and Hajira Parveen, 2005). In addition, phosphine fumigation of dried fish does not cause a residue problem with correct aeration (Rajendran and Hajira Parveen, 2005).

According to circumstances, AlP has been used to protect Hwangtae from Black carpet beetle infestation during the storage period (Gangwon Province, 2018). However, in Korea, since AlP is registered for use on crops, it is regarded as misuse to fumigate Hwangtae using AlP to control pests. Despite the advantages and necessity of fumigants, only a few studies are available on fumigation of fishery products. Hence, this study investigated the residues and dissipation of phosphine in Hwangtae and compared proximate, mineral, and amino acid composition between pre- and post-fumigated Hwangtae to consider the availability of AlP for fishery products. This study reasonably suggests the use of phosphine as a fumigant for Hwangtae.

Materials and methods

Materials and chemicals

Four types of Hwangtae products were used, including eviscerated Hwangtae, Hwangtae filet, shredded Hwangtae, and powdered Hwangtae, which were commercially purchased online and obtained from the Korea Seafood Drying and Processing Council. Epifume (AlP 56%) were obtained from NongHyup Chemical (Seongnam, Korea). Sulfuric acid was purchased from Showa Chemical Industry (Toyo, Japan). Bromine water was purchased from Samchun Pure Chemical (Gyeonggi, Korea). Hydrazine sulfate was purchased from Kanto Chemical (Toyo, Japan). Ammonium molybdate tetrahydrate and potassium dihydrogen phosphate were purchased from Daejung Chemicals & Metals (Gyeonggi, Korea). All chemicals used were of analytical reagent grade and the solutions were prepared in distilled water (DW).

Phosphine residue analysis

Phosphine residues were determined following the methods of the Korean Food Code (MFDS, 2018).

Sample preparation for spectrophotometric analysis

Hwangtae was pulverized and aliquots (50 g) are taken with 10% sulfuric acid in a distillation flask. The flask was attached to two absorption columns cooled in ice, containing brome water. Nitrogen gas is flushed through the apparatus for 30 min and then the flask was heated for an additional 2 h. Residual aluminum phosphide would be hydrolyzed to phosphine in this step. The liberated phosphine is oxidized with bromine water to phosphate (EPA, 1981). After two hours of heating, the bromine water was transferred to a beaker. The solution was concentrated on a hot plate to remove bromine until the volume reached 10 mL and was filtered through a 0.45 μm PTFE syringe filter (SmartPor-II; Woongki Science, Seoul, Korea). The filtrate reacted with 5 N sulfuric acid solution, 0.15% hydrazine sulfate solution, and 2.5% ammonium molybdate tetrahydrate, and then the final volume was adjusted to 1 mL with distilled water.

Preparation of a phosphorus calibration curve

A 100 mg/L stock solution of phosphorus was prepared by dissolving potassium dihydrogen phosphate in DW. The working solution was prepared by tenfold dilution of the stock solution. To construct a calibration curve, phosphorus standard solution contained 5 N sulfuric acid solution (200 µL), 0.15% hydrazine sulfate solution (50 µL), 2.5% ammonium molybdate tetrahydrate (100 µL), and the working standard solution (0, 25, 50, 100, 200, and 400 µL). The final volume was adjusted to 1 L with distilled water.

Colorimetric determination of phosphorus

Sample solutions and standard solutions were allowed to heat in a water bath (12 min) for maximum color development. Then, the solutions were cooled at room temperature (20 °C) and transferred to tube. The absorbance was measured at 730 nm using a UV–VIS spectrophotometer (Eppendorf BioSpectrometer basic, Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany). The concentration of phosphorus was calculated by use of linear equation (y = 0.1885x + 0.0039, R2 = 0.9998) obtained from the calibration curves and multiply this concentration by the conversion factor (PH3/P) of 1.1 to calculate the amount of phosphine.

Fumigation

Laboratory scale fumigation

Eviscerated Hwangtae was fumigated with Epifume at 60 g/m3 (AlP 33.6 g/m3) for 120 h in a 0.01 m3 airtight container; this dose was 20-fold higher than the recommended dosage (3 g/m3). Hwangtae was placed on the drainage tray and tablets were placed at the bottom of the container which allowed the fumigant to avoid contacting the commodity. Three fumigation trials were conducted on different days. After fumigation, the container was aerated for 0, 3, 12, 24, 48, and 72 h under room temperature (18–25 ºC). The samples aerated for the corresponding time were used to detect phosphine residue.

Large scale fumigation/Field trial

Eviscerated Hwangtae packed into large net bags was fumigated with Epifume at 3 g/m3 (AlP 1.68 g/m3) for 7 d in 510 m3 storage. Tablets were distributed on trays and in envelopes to avoid any residue following generation of the phosphine gas and then placed near the commodity and beneath pallets of commodity. After fumigation, the storage was aerated for 0, 3, 12, 24, 48, and 72 h under atmospheric temperature (2.4–20 ºC). The samples aerated for the corresponding time were used to detect phosphine residue.

Nutritional analysis

The proximate, mineral, and amino acid compositions of pre- and post-fumigated Hwangtae were analyzed according to the methods of Korean Food Code (MFDS, 2018) to compare content. Eviscerated Hwangtae was fumigated under laboratory scale, aerated for 72 h, and then analyzed.

Proximate composition

Moisture content was determined by gravimetric measurement using a dry oven (ON-12GW; Jeio Tech, Daejeon, Korea) at 105 °C. Ash content was measured by incinerating the sample using a furnace (F6010; Thermo Scientific, Waltham MA, USA) at 600 °C for 22 h to constant weight. Crude protein content was estimated from total nitrogen content by Kjeldahl method using Kjeldahl digestor (Digestor; FOSS, Hillerød, Denmark) and Kjeldahl analyzer (Kheltec 8400; FOSS, Hillerød, Denmark). Crude fat content was determined by the acid hydrolysis method. Further, the carbohydrate content was estimated by using the following equation.

Carbohydratecontent=100-(Crudeprotein+Crudefat+Ash)

Mineral and amino acid composition analysis

Minerals, such as potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and phosphorus (P) were determined using an inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry (Optima 8300; Perkin Elmer, Waltham MA, USA) after nitric acid digestion with microwave (Mars 5; CEM, Matthews, NC, USA). Amino acid composition was determined with an automatic amino acid analyzer (L-8900, Hitachi, Tokyo, Japan) after protein hydrolysis with hydrochloric acid.

Statistical analysis

All data are presented as the mean ± standard deviation (SD). Data analysis was performed by commercially available software (PASW Statistics 18, release 18.0.0, SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). A P value < 0.05 was considered significantly different.

Results and discussion

Detection of phosphine residue in Hwangtae products

Fourteen Hwangtae products, belonging to four types of Hwangtae, commercially purchased, were analyzed for phosphine residues. The concentration of phosphine residue was lower than the detection limit (0.005 mg/kg) in all experimental samples (Table 1). Similarly, the residual AlP in wheat and flour imported from the United States, Australia, and Canada were below the maximum residue limits for cereal grains (0.1 mg/kg) (Choi et al., 2005). Dieterich et al. (1967) have reported that residues in most fumigated foods are under the level of concern at 0.01 mg/m3 (0.01 ppm) or less (CEPA, 2014). In a National Residue Survey by the Australian Government (2006), phosphine residue was assessed in bulk export grains at ports. Eight commodities were surveyed and none carried phosphine residues above the maximum residue limit of 0.1 ppm (CEPA, 2014).

Table 1.

Phosphine residues in Hwangtae products

Type of products Sample Phosphine (mg/kg)
Eviscerated Hwangtae C Company ND1
Y Company ND
G Company (a)2 ND
G Company (b)3 ND
Hwangtae filet C Company ND
Y Company ND
G Company (a) ND
G Company (b) ND
Shredded Hwangtae C Company ND
D Company ND
H Company ND
Powdered Hwangtae C Company ND
D Company ND
H Company ND
Open in a new tab

1Not detected: below the detection limit (0.005 mg/kg)

2Products produced in 2017 by Company G

3Products produced in 2018 by Company G

AlP appears to be non-persistent under most environmental conditions due to its instability at atmospheric moisture content. AlP reacts with water or moisture in the air to generate phosphine, which is the active ingredient of the pesticide (Cotton and Wilkerson; Fluck; US EPA, 1998). Due to the high vapor pressure (40 mm Hg at -129.4 °C) and Henry’s Law Constant (0.1 atm m3/mol), phosphine rapidly dissipates into the atmosphere and then is quickly degraded (US EPA, 1998). Its half-life in air is approximately 5 h with degradation due to photoreaction with hydroxyl-radicals (US EPA 1998); thus, phosphine gas residues remaining on treated commodities diffuse into the atmosphere and are removed via photo-degradation.

Residue and dissipation of phosphine in Hwangtae fumigated under laboratory scale and large scale

As shown in Fig. 1, detection of phosphine residue in laboratory scale fumigated Hwangtae is analyzed by aeration time. After 120 h of fumigation in laboratory sclae, Hwangtae phosphine residue was 2.47 mg/kg. After 3, 12, 24, and 48 h of aeration in open air, the corresponding Hwangtae phosphine residues were 2.09, 0.74, 0.59, and 0.14 mg/kg, respectively. After 3 d in open air, no residue was detected on Hwangtae. Additionally, phosphine residue in large scale fumigated Hwangtae was analyzed by aeration time (Fig. 1). After 7 d of fumigation, the Hwangtae phosphine residue was 3.25 mg/kg. After aeration for 3, 12, 24, and 48 h in open air, the corresponding Hwangtae phosphine residue was 2.77, 1.65, 0.85, and 0.26 mg/kg, respectively. After 3 d aeration in open air, there was no residue detected on the Hwangtae. Phosphine residue of fumigated Hwangtae at both laboratory and large scale showed a similar dissipation pattern, which was reduced by aeration time.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

Open in a new tab

Phosphine residues in laboratory scale and large scale fumigated Hwangtae by aeration time. The asterisk (*) indicates statistical significance (P < 0.05)

Similar results were observed from other fumigation studies. In three glass jars, ham pieces were fumigated under lab conditions at 1,000 mg/kg for 48 h. After 2 d in open air, one jar contained phosphine residue at an average of 0.02 mg/kg, whereas no residue was detected in the other jars. After 4 d in open air, no residue is detected (Zhao et al., 2015). In experiments at the Overseas Development Natural Resources Institute (NRI), UK, the dried fish, Bombay duck, Harpadon nehereus, (Hamilton–Buchanan) was fumigated with phosphine at 2.8 g/m3 for 5 d. Phosphine residues on the fumigated fish were 0.04, 0.02, and 0.01 mg/kg after an aeration period of 1, 2, and 14 d, respectively (Rajendran & Hajira Parveen, 2005).

In contrast, detectable residues in food have been reported in field trials (US EPA, 1998). However, these are attributed to misapplication (pellets applied directly to wheat grain resulting in residues of up to 83 mg/kg after 24 h of aeration) (US EPA, 1998). Due to the high vapor pressure, phosphine gas dissipates quickly into the atmosphere, where it is degraded by photoreaction with hydroxyl-radicals. Otherwise, it is oxidized to phosphorous oxy-acids (hypophosphite, phosphite, and phosphate); these oxidation products are widespread in the environment and are thus considered of no significant concern for human health (EFSA, 2009). Thus, phosphine residues are not expected on treated commodities with proper use of these chemicals, and any phosphine left in fumigated commodities is expected to be removed by adequate aeration of the commodities (US EPA, 1998).

Comparison of proximate, mineral, and amino acid compositions between pre- and post-fumigated Hwangtae

Proximate composition of pre- and post-fumigated Hwangtae was compared (Table 2). Moisture, ash, protein, fat, and carbohydrate did not differ (P > 0.05) between pre- and post-fumigated Hwangtae. Since Hwangtae has high levels of mineral components, such as phosphorus, potassium, and calcium (Kim et al., 2010), these components have been analyzed in this study. The mineral composition of pre- and post-fumigated Hwangtae is compared in Table 3 and shows no significant differences (P < 0.05) between pre- and post-fumigated Hwangtae. Hwangtae amino acid composition between pre- and post-fumigation were compared (Table 4). Hwangtae contained 18 essential and non-essential amino acids, with large amounts of glutamic acid (11.05 g/100 g) and aspartic acid (7.03 g/100 g). Other studies have reported high levels of glutamic acid, followed by aspartic acid in Hwangtae (Cho et al., 2008; Kim et al., 2010). There were no significant differences (P > 0.05) in the amino acid content between pre- and post-fumigated Hwangtae.

Table 2.

Proximate composition of pre-fumigated and post-fumigated Hwangtae

Component Content (g/100 g)
Pre-fumigated Hwangtae Post-fumigated Hwangtae
Moisture 9.73 ± 3.33 10.87 ± 3.4
Ash 8.73 ± 0.82 8.13 ± 0.76
Crude protein 75.87 ± 6.21 76.57 ± 3.95
Crude fat 4.33 ± 0.45 4.43 ± 0.23
Carbohydrate 1.33 ± 2.31 0
Open in a new tab

Values displayed are the mean ± standard deviation from triplicate determination (n = 3). Statistical analysis has been conducted using a t-test. There is no statistical difference (P < 0.05) between pre- and post-fumigated Hwangtae

Table 3.

Mineral composition of pre-fumigated and post-fumigated Hwangtae

Component Content (g/100 g)
Pre-fumigated Hwangtae Post-fumigated Hwangtae
Calcium 1.21 ± 0.61 1.66 ± 0.11
Potassium 1.17 ± 0.85 1.32 ± 0.24
Phosphorus 0.70 ± 0.38 1.00 ± 0.09
Open in a new tab

Values displayed are the mean ± standard deviation from triplicate determination (n = 3). Statistical analysis has been conducted using a t-test. There is no statistical difference (P < 0.05) between pre- and post-fumigated Hwangtae

Table 4.

Amino acid composition of pre-fumigated and post-fumigated Hwangtae

Component Content (g/100 g)
Pre-fumigated Hwangtae Post-fumigated Hwangtae
Aspartic acid 7.03 ± 0.92 7.17 ± 0.11
Threonine 2.98 ± 0.36 3.04 ± 0.04
Serine 3.01 ± 0.42 3.33 ± 0.14
Glutamic acid 11.05 ± 2.06 11.61 ± 0.04
Glycine 4.23 ± 0.68 5.02 ± 1.06
Alanine 4.57 ± 0.31 4.80 ± 0.29
Cystine 0.84 ± 0.32 0.91 ± 0.08
Valine 3.33 ± 0.28 3.22 ± 0.14
Methionine 2.22 ± 0.40 2.31 ± 0.07
Isoleucine 2.95 ± 0.24 2.80 ± 0.13
Leucine 5.67 ± 0.51 5.51 ± 0.10
Tyrosine 2.12 ± 0.64 2.28 ± 0.14
Phenylalanine 2.86 ± 0.30 2.84 ± 0.07
Lysine 6.11 ± 1.12 6.20 ± 0.13
Ammonia 1.43 ± 0.37 1.63 ± 0.12
Histidine 1.31 ± 0.05 1.26 ± 0.04
Arginine 5.12 ± 0.90 5.66 ± 0.27
Hydroxyproline 0.49 ± 0.31 0.63 ± 0.28
Proline 2.68 ± 0.58 2.70 ± 0.36
Open in a new tab

Values displayed are the mean ± standard deviation from triplicate determination (n = 3). Statistical analysis has been conducted using a t-test. There is no statistical difference (P < 0.05) between pre- and post-fumigated Hwangtae

“Quality” may relate to edibility, nutritional value, or commercial value (Plimmer, 1977); however, alteration of nutrient composition and content by fumigation may affect food quality. This alteration is associated with the ability of phosphine to be adsorbed/desorbed from food commodities (USAID, 2012). Commodities sorb phosphine by both physisorption, a reversible reaction that permits phosphine to desorb over time, and chemisorption, a non-reversible process (Berck, 1968). Generally, chemisorption is a passive process related to the temperature, time, and moisture content of the commodity (Berck, 1968).

Because of these findings, phosphine fumigation may not affect food quality. This conclusion can be supported by the results that cereal products do not chemisorb applied phosphine (USAID, 2012). However, Berck (1968) presented presumptive evidence that phosphine binds to proteins and mineral components of raw cereal commodities and milled products. Minor levels of sorbed phosphine bind to protein in wheat (USAID, 2012). Furthermore, phosphine reduces cystine to form cysteine and oxy-acids of phosphorus in vitro (Bond et al., 1969; Robinson and Bond, 1970).

Several studies have demonstrated that food quality may be affected by fumigation, but the potential effects are minor, especially compared to the potential for infestation and the risk of losing the commodity under non-fumigated conditions. Moreover, the potential effects of fumigation on food quality are not completely understood (USAID, 2012); therefore, additional research is required to identify any effect on other nutrients of Hwangtae not covered in this study. Since AlP should not be directly applied to food ingredients, and especially the food containing the ingredient is prepared and cooked by heating, the residual phosphine is unlikely to be found on the food at the time of consumption (US EPA, 1998).

In conclusion, there was no statistical difference in proximate, mineral, and amino acid composition between pre- and post-fumigated Hwangtae and Hwangtae did not have a phosphine residue problem after proper aeration.

Acknowledgements

The authors want to thank Gangwon Province, Republic of Korea (Research project no. 2018120120) for providing financial support of this research. I would like to express my very great appreciation to Dr. Minchul Yoon and Dr. S. Palanisamy for their valuable and constructive suggestions during drafting of this manuscript. Their willingness to donate their time so generously has been much appreciated.

Declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Human and animal rights

This article contains no studies with human or animal subjects performed by the authors.

Footnotes

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Contributor Information

Hye Young Shin, Email: shinhy@gwnu.ac.kr.

Ji Seop An, Email: spadeknave@hanmail.net.

Ji Min Lee, Email: dlwlals073000@hanmail.net.

Sang Guan You, Email: umyousg@gwnu.ac.kr.

Il Shik Shin, Email: shinis@gwnu.ac.kr.

References

  1. Arthur FH. Aerosols and contact insecticides as alternatives to methyl bromide in flour mills, food production facilities, and food warehouses. J. Pest Sci. 2012;85:323–329. doi: 10.1007/s10340-012-0439-9. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  2. Awoyemi MD. Preliminary observations on the incidence of insect pests and related damage to stored dried fish in Kainji Lake area. Int. J. Trop. Insect Sci. 1991;12:361–365. doi: 10.1017/S1742758400011218. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  3. Berck B. Sorption of Phosphine by cereal products. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 1968;16:419–425. doi: 10.1021/jf60157a009. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  4. Bond EJ, Robinson JR, Buckland CT. The toxic action of phosphine absorption and symptoms of poisoning in insects. J. Stored Prod. Res. 1969;5:289–298. doi: 10.1016/0022-474X(69)90002-2. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  5. Bramavath D, Thiyyagura SR, Nandam RB. Fumigation of stored-products: Current needs and practices, and future outlook. Int. J. Chem. Stud. 2017;5:1499–1504. [Google Scholar]
  6. Campolo O, Giunti G, Russo A, Palmeri V, Zappalà L. Essential oils in stored product insect pest control. J. Food Qual. 2018;5:1499–1504. [Google Scholar]
  7. California Environmental Protection Agency (CEPA). Fumigants: phosphine and phosphine-generating compounds risk characterization document (2014). Available from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.441.7484&rep=rep1&type=pdf. Accessed Sep. 18, 2020.
  8. Cho SS, Lee HK, Han CW, Seong ES, Yu CY, Kim MJ, Kim NY, Kang WS, Ko SH, Son EH, Choung MG, Lim JD. Physicochemical properties of isolated peptides from hwangtae (yellowish dried pollack) protein hydrolysate. J. Korean Soc. Food Sci. Nutr. 2008;13:204–211. [Google Scholar]
  9. Choi YH, Yoon SH, Hong HM, Kang YS, Chae KR, Lee JO. Monitoring of aluminium phosphide residues in wheat and wheat flour. Food Sci. Biotechnol. 2005;37:532–536. [Google Scholar]
  10. Davis R. Fumigants. 2. Cambridge: Academic Press; 2003. pp. 2821–2826. [Google Scholar]
  11. European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). Conclusion regarding the peer review of the pesticide risk assessment of the active substance aluminium phosphide (2009). Available from: https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2903/j.efsa.2009.182r. Accessed Oct. 7, 2020.
  12. Fields PG, White NDG. Alternatives to methyl bromide treatments for stored-product and quarantine insects. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 2002;47:331–359. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ento.47.091201.145217. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Gangwon Province (Hwandonghae headquarters). Study on the establishment of tolerance limit for Hwangtae. Fisheries Policy Division, Gangwon, Korea. (2018)
  14. Hagstrum DW, Klejdysz T, Subramanyam B, Nawrot J. Pest management. pp. 577–589. In: Atlas of stored-product insects and mites. Hagstrum DW, Klejdysz T, Subramanyam B, Nawrot J (eds). AACC International, Eagan (2013)
  15. Haines CP, Rees DP. A field guide to the types of insects and mites infesting cured fish. Available from: http://www.fao.org/3/t0146e/t0146e00.htm. Accessed Aug. 19, 2020.
  16. Jayas DS, Jeyamkondan S. Modified atmosphere storage of grains meats fruits and vegetables. J. Biosyst. Eng. 2002;82:235–251. doi: 10.1006/bioe.2002.0080. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  17. Khan MAA, Khan YSA. Insect infestation and preventive measures in dry fish storage of Chittagong, Bangladesh. J. Biol. Sci. 2001;1:963–965. doi: 10.3923/jbs.2001.963.965. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  18. Kim JH. Drying process of natural cyclic freeze-thaw dried alaska pollack. In: MS thesis, Inje university, Busan (2007)
  19. Kim JS, Kim KS, Kim MJ. Analysis of food components of freeze-dried Alaska Pollack (Hwangtae) Afr. J. Biotechnol. 2010;9:3629–3633. [Google Scholar]
  20. Ministry of Food and Drug Safety (MFDS). Korean food code (Notification 2018–60, 18.8.16). Available from: https://www.mfds.go.kr/brd/m_211/list.do. Accessed Sep. 10, 2018.
  21. Phillips TW, Thomas EM, DeMark J, Walse S. Fumigation. pp. 157–178. In: Stored Product Protection. Hagstrum DW, Phillips TW, Cuperus G (eds). K-State Research and Extension, Manhattan (2012)
  22. Plimmer JR. The effect of fumigants on food quality. J. Food Saf. 1977;1:87–105. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-4565.1977.tb00262.x. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  23. Rajendran S, Hajira Parveen KM. Insect infestation in stored animal products. J. Stored Prod. Res. 2005;41:1–30. doi: 10.1016/j.jspr.2003.12.002. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  24. Robinson JR, Bond EJ. The toxic action of phosphine: studies with 32PH3; terminal residues in biological materials. J. Stored Prod. Res. 1970;6:133–146. doi: 10.1016/0022-474X(70)90002-0. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  25. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Aluminum Phosphide: Pesticide Registration Standard (1981). Available from: https://nepis.epa.gov/EPA/html/DLwait.htm?url=/Exe/ZyPDF.cgi/91012VF8.PDF?Dockey=91012VF8.PDF. Accessed May. 31, 2021.
  26. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Reregistration Eligibility Decision (RED) AL & MG Phosphide (1998). Available from: https://nepis.epa.gov/EPA/html/DLwait.htm?url=/Exe/ZyPDF.cgi/20000Q2C.PDF?Dockey=20000Q2C.PDF Accessed Sep. 24, 2020.
  27. United States Agency International Development (USAID). Commodity protection by phosphine fumigation in USAID Food Aid Programs (2012). Available from: https://www.usaidgems.org/Workshops/Niger2014Materials/Reference%20Documents/ANG_PEA%20sur%20la%20Fumigation.pdf. Accessed Sep. 18, 2020.
  28. Vincent C, Weintraub PG, Hallman GJ, Fleurat-Lessard F. Insect management with physical methods in pre-and post-harvest situations. Vol. 309. pp. 309–323. In: Integrated Pest Management: Concepts, Tactics, Strategies and Case Studies. Radcliffe EB, Hutchison WD, Cancelado RE (Eds). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2009)
  29. Zhao Y, Abbar S, Phillips TW, Schilling MW. Phosphine fumigation and residues in dry-cured ham in commercial applications. Meat Sci. 2015;107:57–63. doi: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2015.04.008. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Food Science and Biotechnology are provided here courtesy of Springer

RESOURCES