Table 4.

Characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 cytokine storm syndrome (CSS), CAR-T cell therapy-associated cytokine release syndrome (CRS) and hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis /macrophage activation syndrome (HLH/MAS) [58,59,60,61].

Characteristics	SARS-CoV-2- Associated CSS	CAR-T-Associated CRS	Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis/ Macrophage Activation Syndrome(HLH/MAS)
Cytokines	IL-2, IL-7, IL-10, G-SCF, IP10, MCP-1, MIP-1A, TNF-α	IFN-γ, IL-2, IL-2Ra, IL-6, sIL-6R, GM-CSF, IL-1, IL-10, IL-12, TNF-a, IFN-a, MCP-1, MIP-1A	TNF-α, IFNγ, IL-1, IL-6, IL-18
Pathologic cellular or cytokine driver	Impaired viral clearance, low levels of type I interferons, increased neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs)	Macrophages, CAR T cells, interleukin-6, interleukin-1β	CD8+ T cells, interferon-γ, interleukin-1β, myeloid-cell autoinflammation
Treatment	Glucocorticoids IL-1 inhibitor Il-6 inhibitor	IL-6 inhibitors TNF-α inhibitors Cyclophosphamide	Glucocorticoids IL-6 inhibitors TNF-α inhibitors
Differentiating laboratory features	Soluble IL-2 receptor-α low to normal Ferritin moderately to highly increased	Soluble IL-2 receptor-α very high Ferritin extremely high	Soluble IL-2 receptor-α very high Ferritin extremely high
Differentiating clinical features	Not specific but high rates of ARDS	Not specific	Not specific