Skip to main content
Wiley - PMC COVID-19 Collection logoLink to Wiley - PMC COVID-19 Collection
. 2022 Jun 2;161(2):267–287. doi: 10.1111/ilr.12220

Occupational safety and health challenges for maritime key workers in the global COVID‐19 pandemic

Desai SHAN 1,
PMCID: PMC8444828  PMID: 34548682

Abstract

The COVID‐19 pandemic has changed the world of work. But global trade is still recognized as an essential area of business, and maritime transport, being an engine of globalization, cannot be paused. Since the onset of the pandemic, few governments have allowed seafarers – who transport more than 90 per cent of global commodities – to leave their ships and return home. The travel restrictions related to COVID‐19 have led to a crisis of occupational safety and health (OSH) at sea. Drawing on 29 interviews, this article explores the OSH challenges faced by international seafarers during the pandemic.

Keywords: occupational safety and health, OSH, COVID‐19, seafarer, essential workers


 

This research is funded by Seed, Bridge and Multidisciplinary Fund Grant (File No. 20210387), COVID‐19 Quick Start Funds of the Office of Public Engagement, and Faculty of Medicine and the Office of the Vice‐President (Research) Startup Support (File No. 20211883), Memorial University of Newfoundland. The author thanks Professor Katherine Lippel, Professor Barb Neis and anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments. The author wishes to dedicate this article to the participants in the study, in particular to the seafarers, who are the unsung heroes of the global pandemic.

Responsibility for opinions expressed in signed articles rests solely with their authors, and publication does not constitute an endorsement by the ILO.

This article is also available in French, in Revue internationale du Travail 161 (2), and Spanish, in Revista Internacional del Trabajo 141 (2).

References

  1. Acejo, Iris , Sampson Helen, Turgo Nelson, Ellis Neil, and Tang Lijun. 2018. “The Causes of Maritime Accidents in the Period 2002–2016”. November 2018. Cardiff: Seafarers International Research Centre, Cardiff University. [Google Scholar]
  2. Almendral, Aurora . 2020. “Trapped by Pandemic, Ships' Crews Fight Exhaustion and Despair”. The New York Times, 9 September 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/09/business/coronavirus-sailors-cargo-ships.html.
  3. Bockmann, Michelle Wiese . 2020. “Crew Change Costs Shipowner $820,000, Says ICS”. Lloyd's List, 7 August 2020. https://lloydslist.maritimeintelligence.informa.com/LL1133432/Crew-change-costs-shipowner-820000-says-ICS?fbclid=IwAR1Z2h46xepTYm8tyyX82P_zJmBjE50E-A3ZfMj6aStetP2iFC2T2vSQs1U.
  4. CNSS . 2020. “jiāo tōng yùn shū bù: wài jí chuán yuán bù dé zài zhōng guó huàn bān” [Ministry of Transport: Foreign crew members not allowed to change over in China]. 31 March 2020. https://www.cnss.com.cn/html/currentevents/20200331/335136.html.
  5. Damian, April Joy , Armah Tichianaa, Bryant Daniel, and Lee-Winn Angela. 2020. “Mental Health Challenges Faced by Essential Workers During COVID-19”. BMC Blog Network On Health (blog). 14 July 2020. https://blogs.biomedcentral.com/on-health/2020/07/14/mental-health-challenges-faced-by-essential-workers-during-covid-19/.
  6. Dragicevic, Nina . 2020. “What We Learned about COVID-19 from the Diamond Princess”. CBC, 24 November 2020. https://www.cbc.ca/documentaries/the-nature-of-things/what-we-learned-about-covid-19-from-the-diamond-princess-1.5814190.
  7. Ek, Åsa , Runefors Marcus, and Borell Jonas. 2014. “Relationships between Safety Culture Aspects: A Work Process to Enable Interpretation”. Marine Policy 44 (February): 179–186. [Google Scholar]
  8. Guerrero, Lourdes R. , Avgar Ariel C., Phillips Erica, and Sterling Madeline R.. 2020. “They Are Essential Workers Now, and Should Continue to Be: Social Workers and Home Health Care Workers during COVID-19 and Beyond”. Journal of Gerontological Social Work 63 (6–7): 574–576. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Hammonds, Clare , Kerrissey Jasmine, and Tomaskovic-Devey Donald, 2020. “Stressed, Unsafe, and Insecure: Essential Workers Need a New, New Deal”, Working Paper Series, 5 June 2020. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Amherst.
  10. Hines, Jasmine , and Burt Jemima. 2020. “Seafarers Forced to Spend up to 18 Months on Ships, International Transport Workers' Federation Says”. ABC News, 20 October 2020. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-10-20/seafarers-spend-18-months-without-leaving-cargo-ships/12780960.
  11. Hystad, Sigurd W. , and Jarle Eid. 2016. “Sleep and Fatigue among Seafarers: The Role of Environmental Stressors, Duration at Sea and Psychological Capital”. Safety and Health at Work 7 (4): 363–371. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. IIOSH (Israel Institute for Occupational Safety and Hygiene), ILO and ICS (International Chamber of Shipping) . 2000. International Hazard Datasheets on Occupation. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/—ed_protect/—protrav/—safework/documents/publication/wcms_190247.pdf.
  13. ILO . 2020a. “ILO Monitor: COVID-19 and the World of Work”, 6th ed., 23 September 2020. Geneva.
  14. ILO . 2020b. “A Policy Framework for Tackling the Economic and Social Impact of the COVID-19 Crisis”, Policy Brief, May 2020. Geneva.
  15. ILO . 2020c. General Observation on Matters Arising from the Application of the Maritime Labour Convention, 2006, as Amended (MLC, 2006) during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations, 91st Session, November–December 2020. Geneva.
  16. ILO . 2021. “Information Note on Maritime Labour Issues and Coronavirus (COVID-19)”. Revised version 3.0. Geneva.
  17. IMO (International Maritime Organization) . 2019. “Guidelines on Fatigue”. MSC.1/Circ.1598, 24 January 2019. London. https://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/HumanElement/Pages/Fatigue.aspx.
  18. IMO (International Maritime Organization) . 2020a. “A Humanitarian Crisis at Sea: All United Nations Member States Must Resolve the Crew Change Crisis”, 14 September 2020. https://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/PressBriefings/Pages/27-crew-change-joint-statement.aspx#:~:text=Trapped%20on%20their%20ships%20due,are%20unable%20to%20board%20ships.
  19. IMO (International Maritime Organization) . 2020b. “COVID-19 and Maritime Crew Changes: A Humanitarian, Safety, and Economic Crisis”. Remarks by IMO Secretary-General Kitack Lim on World Maritime Day event on the margins of the UN General Assembly High Level Week, New York, 24 September 2020.
  20. IMO (International Maritime Organization) . 2020c. “Day of the Seafarer 2020: Message by Kitack Lim, Secretary-General – International Maritime Organization”, 25 June 2020. https://wwwcdn.imo.org/localresources/en/About/Events/Documents/Day%20of%20the%20Seafarer%202020%20-%20SG%20message.pdf.
  21. IMO (International Maritime Organization) . 2020d. “Supporting Seafarers on the Frontline of COVID-19”. https://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/pages/support-for-seafarers-during-covid-19.aspx.
  22. IMO (International Maritime Organization) . 2021. “Coronavirus (COVID-19) – Designation of Seafarers as Key Workers”. Circular Letter No. 4204/Add. 35/ Rev. 6, 23 April 2021. London.
  23. Inside Logistics . 2020. “Second Wave of Pandemic Crushing Seafarers' Hopes”. 26 October 2020. https://www.insidelogistics.ca/covid-19/second-wave-of-pandemic-crushing-seafarers-hopes-173340/.
  24. ITF (International Transport Workers' Federation) Seafarers . 2020. “UN Agency Finds Governments in Breach of International Law”, 17 December 2020. https://www.itfseafarers.org/en/news/un-agency-finds-governments-breach-international-law.
  25. Iversen, Robert T.B. 2012. “The Mental Health of Seafarers”. International Maritime Health 63 (2): 78–89. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Lefkowitz, Rafael Yitzhak . 2013. “Incidence of Injury and Illness in Merchant Seafarers”. Public Health Theses, 1165. New Haven, CT: Yale University. [Google Scholar]
  27. Lefkowitz, Rafael Yitzhak , and Slade Martin D.. 2019. “Seafarer Mental Health Study”. Final Report, October 2019. London: ITF Seafarers' Trust.
  28. Moriarty, Leah F. , Plucinski Mateusz M., Marston Barbara J., Kurbatova Ekaterina V., Knust Barbara, Murray Erin L., Pesik Nicki et al. 2020. “Public Health Responses to COVID-19 Outbreaks on Cruise Ships: Worldwide, February–March 2020”. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 69 (12): 347–352. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Osler, David . 2020. “Terminals Axe Shore Leave as Coronavirus Alarm Mounts”. Lloyd's List, 9 March 2020. https://lloydslist.maritimeintelligence.informa.com/LL1131434/Terminals-axe-shore-leave-as-coronavirus-alarm-mounts.
  30. Pedley, Malcolm . 2020. “Extension of Precautionary Measures to Minimise Risk of Community Spread of the Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) in Singapore”. WEST, 25 March 2020. https://www.westpandi.com/publications/news/extension-of-precautionary-measures-to-minimise-ri/.
  31. Polak, Samuel B. , Van Gool Inge C., Cohen Danielle, von der Thüsen Jan H., and van Paassen Judith. 2020. “A Systematic Review of Pathological Findings in COVID-19: A Pathophysiological Timeline and Possible Mechanisms of Disease Progression”. Modern Pathology 33 (11): 2128–2138. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Ramos, Athena K. , Lowe Abigail E., Herstein Jocelyn J., Schwedhelm Shelly, Dineen Kelly K., and Lowe John J.. 2020. “Invisible No More: The Impact of COVID-19 on Essential Food Production Workers”. Journal of Agromedicine 25 (4): 378–382. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Ratcliffe, Rebecca , and Fonbuena Carmela. 2020. “Inside the Cruise Ship that Became a Coronavirus Breeding Ground”. The Guardian, 6 March 2020. https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/mar/06/inside-the-cruise-ship-that-became-a-coronavirus-breeding-ground-diamond-princess.
  34. Roberts, Rashaun K. , Swanson Naomi G., and Murphy Lawrence R.. 2004. “Discrimination and Occupational Mental Health”. Journal of Mental Health 13 (2): 129–142. [Google Scholar]
  35. Roberts, Stephen E. , Nielsen D., Kotłowski Andrzej, and Jaremin Bogdan. 2014. “Fatal Accidents and Injuries among Merchant Seafarers Worldwide”. Occupational Medicine 64 (4): 259–266. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Sampson, Helen , and Ellis Neil. 2019. Seafarers' Mental Health and Wellbeing. Leicestershire: Institution of Occupational Safety and Health. [Google Scholar]
  37. Sampson, Helen , Ellis Neil, Acejo Iris, Turgo Neil, and Tang Lijun. 2018. The Working and Living Conditions of Seafarers on Cargo Ships in the Period 2011–2016. Cardiff: Seafarers International Research Centre, Cardiff University. [Google Scholar]
  38. Shan, Desai , and Neis Barbara. 2020. “Employment-Related Mobility, Regulatory Weakness and Potential Fatigue-Related Safety Concerns in Short-Sea Seafaring on Canada's Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Seaway: Canadian Seafarers' Experiences”. Safety Science 121 (January): 165–176. [Google Scholar]
  39. Shaw, William S. , Main Chris J., Findley Patricia A., Collie Alex, Kristman Vicki L., and Gross Douglas P.. 2020. “Opening the Workplace after COVID-19: What Lessons Can Be Learned from Return-to-Work Research?” Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation 30 (3): 299–302. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Silverman, David . 2011. Interpreting Qualitative Data. 4th ed. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE. [Google Scholar]
  41. The Maritime Executive . 2020. “Seafarers Complain of Racism and Lack of Shore Leave”. 28 January 2020. https://www.maritime-executive.com/article/seafarers-complain-of-racism-and-access-to-shore-leave.
  42. United States Coast Guard . 2020. “Marine Safety Information Bulletin: Novel Corona-virus – Update (Change 1)”. 9 March 2020. Washington, DC.
  43. Walters, David , and Bailey Nick. 2013. Lives in Peril: Profit or Safety in the Global Maritime Industry? Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan. [Google Scholar]
  44. WHO (World Health Organization) . 2007. Ethical Considerations in Developing a Public Health Response to Pandemic Influenza. Geneva.
  45. WHO (World Health Organization) . 2014. Preventing suicide: A global imperative. Geneva.
  46. WHO (World Health Organization) . 2020a. “Updated WHO Recommendations for International Traffic in Relation to COVID-19 Outbreak”, 29 February 2020. https://www.who.int/news-room/articles-detail/updated-who-recommendations-for-international-traffic-in-relation-to-covid-19-outbreak.
  47. WHO (World Health Organization) . 2020b. “Public Health Considerations while Resuming International Travel”, 30 July 2020. https://www.who.int/news-room/articles-detail/public-health-considerations-while-resuming-international-travel.
  48. Wilson, Nick , Blakely Tony, Baker Michael, and Eichner Martin. 2020. “Estimating the Risk of Outbreaks of COVID-19 Associated with Shore Leave by Merchant Ship Crews: Simulation Studies for a Case Country”. medRxiv (unrefereed pre-print), 11 September 2020. 10.1101/2020.09.08.20190769. [DOI] [PubMed]
  49. World Maritime University . 2020. A Culture of Adjustment: Evaluating the Implementation of the Current Maritime Regulatory Framework on Rest and Work Hours (EVREST). Malmö.
  50. Xia, Yang . 2020. “liù bù wěi yao qiú yán gé zhí xíng zhōng guó jí chuán yuán huàn bān guī dìng, bǎo zhàng chuán yuán hé fǎ quán yì” [Six ministries and commissions require strict implementation of the crew change regulations for Chinese nationals to protect the legitimate rights and interests of the crew]. Sina, 23 April 2020. https://tech.sina.com.cn/roll/2020-04-23/doc-iirczymi7890131.shtml.
  51. xiǎn wēi jìng [Insight] . 2020. “zhōng guó chuán yuán yīn yì qíng huí guó wú mén : gōng sī qīn fàn lì yì dàn bù gǎn fǎn kàng” [Chinese crew members have no way to return to China owing to the epidemic: The company violated their interests but they dared not resist]. 22 June 2020. https://3g.163.com/dy/article/FFOLJ4VK05417QGH.html?referFrom.

Articles from International Labour Review are provided here courtesy of Wiley

RESOURCES