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. 2021 Apr 18;44(5):1696–1712. doi: 10.1007/s10753-021-01467-2

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 2 — Signaling pathways regulating M1 macrophage polarization. Naïve macrophage is induced into M1 macrophage by LPS, IFN-γ, and IFN-α/β through specific receptors, such as TLR4, IFNγR, and IFNAR. And the related signaling pathways such as STAT1, NF-κB, and IRF3 have an important role in the process, which results in the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6.