Abstract
Background:
Feeding behavior is an important factor in the prevention and management of noncommunicable diseases, which are the leading cause of death globally.
Objective:
This study is aimed to investigate the feeding behaviors among health-care workers in a tertiary hospital in southeast Nigeria.
Materials and Methods:
The study was a cross-sectional survey. A total of 418 participants (186 males and 232 females) were involved in the study. The instrument is a sociodemographic questionnaire and a modified form of the British Heart Foundation's questions to assess the nutritional value of individuals. The participants were consecutively recruited from their workstations. Data were collected using self-administered questionnaires, which were hand distributed and collected back on the same day after completion.
Results:
The study showed that health workers in the teaching hospital had an overall “fair” feeding behavior (86.13 ± 8.52 out of 140). It also showed that females had a significant (P < 0.05) overall better feeding behavior (88.15 ± 9.00) compared to males (83.62 ± 7.18). The studied participants had poor feeding behavior in carbohydrates and fats and oil consumption and just fair behavior in fruits and vegetables, salt intake, and water consumption. The feeding behavior was inadequate, and there was no significant gender or profession-related differences in the overall behavior of the participants.
Conclusion:
The health-care workers in the tertiary health institution in southeast Nigeria have inadequate feeding behavior. They should join in the global call and awareness on healthy feeding behavior to prevent and reduce the burden of noncommunicable diseases.
Keywords: Feeding behavior, health-care workers, noncommunicable diseases, Southeast Nigeria
Résumé
Contexte:
Le comportement alimentaire est un facteur important dans la prévention et la gestion des maladies non transmissibles, qui sont les cause de décès dans le monde.
Objectif:
Cette étude vise à étudier les comportements alimentaires des agents de santé dans un hôpital tertiaire de au sud-est du Nigéria.
Matériel et méthodes:
L’étude était une enquête transversale. Un total de 418 participants (186 hommes et 232 femmes) ont été impliqués dans l’étude. L’instrument est un questionnaire sociodémographique et une forme modifiée des questions de la British Heart Foundation évaluer la valeur nutritionnelle des individus. Les participants ont été recrutés consécutivement à partir de leurs postes de travail. Les données ont été collectées en utilisant des questionnaires auto-administrés, qui ont été distribués à la main et récupérés le même jour après avoir été remplis.
Résultats:
l’étude a montré que les agents de santé de l’hôpital universitaire avaient globalement un comportement alimentaire «équitable» (86,13 ± 8,52 sur 140). Il a également montré que les femmes avaient un un meilleur comportement alimentaire global (P <0,05) (88,15 ± 9,00) par rapport aux mâles (83,62 ± 7,18). Les participants étudiés avaient une mauvaise alimentation comportement dans les glucides et les graisses et la consommation d’huile et juste comportement équitable dans les fruits et légumes, la consommation de sel et la consommation d’eau. Le comportement alimentaire était inadéquat et il n’y avait pas de différences significatives liées au sexe ou à la profession dans le comportement général des participants.
Conclusion:
Les agents de santé de l’institution de santé tertiaire du sud-est du Nigéria ont un comportement alimentaire inadéquat. Ils devraient se joindre à l’appel mondial et à la sensibilisation sur les comportements alimentaires sains pour prévenir et réduire le fardeau des maladies non transmissibles.
Mots-clés: Comportement alimentaire, agents de santé, maladies non transmissibles, sud-est du Nigéria
INTRODUCTION
Feeding behavior assessment is a part of many medical consultations, which is an important factor for the prevention and management of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs).[1] NCDs are the leading cause of death globally. In 2012, they caused 68% of all deaths (38 million) up from 60% in 2000.[2] The United Nations Department of Public information in 2011 estimated that with sustained growth trends, NCDs will attribute to 7 out of every ten deaths in developing countries like Nigeria by 2020, killing 52 million people annually worldwide by 2030.[3] With statistics such as these, it comes as no surprise that international entities such as the World Health Organization and World Bank Human Development Network have identified the prevention and control of NCDs as an increasingly important discussion item on the global health agenda. Alteration of feeding behavior is one of the main modifiable determinants of NCDs and good practice may result in a reduction of diet-related diseases.[4]
Feeding behavior, which influences energy intake and expenditure, is affected by some internal and external determinants.[5] These determinants are food knowledge, availability, attitudes, emotional state, experiences of the individual, and the socio-cultural environment in which the behavior occurs.[5,6] According to a study,[7] Poor eating habits may result in emotional (irritation and frustration), physical (tiredness and hungriness), and cognitive (difficult concentrating and poor decision-making) challenges, which have a significant negative impact on personal health care, wellness, and professional performance. The nature of occupation, which is hinged on break time or fatigue after work, could affect eating habits, which may lead to malnutrition. Malnutrition can be under-nutrition or over-nutrition. Malnutrition may lead to the deficiency of many micro and macronutrients in the body. Over-nutrition involves the intake of nutrients in excess of body requirements. This may lead to overweight and obesity.[8] A Nigerian national survey reported a 20% increase in the prevalence of obesity from 2002 to 2014.[9] A 2010 study done among nurses in the Akwa Ibom State of Nigeria, reported that 62.6% of the nurses were obese.[10] This proportion was higher than the 2008 Nigerian Demographic Health Survey Data which assessed overweight and obesity among women in the general population, aged 15–49 years and resident in the same state, which was 34.8%.[10]
Health-care workers by their position and learning are considered role models in healthy practices, including adequate nutrition. They are the major source of nutritional information for the teeming population, particularly in developing countries.
However, studies have shown that in most developing nations health-care workers do not diligently put the information to practice. Kunene and Taukobong[11] reported poor eating habits among health professionals in a health facility in South Africa. A similar study in Jos, Nigeria, reported “largely fair” nutritional knowledge and practice among health professionals.[12] In the same study, Banwat reported that 35.2% of nurses in Jos, Nigeria, were obese.
The growing public health problem, especially nutrition-related risk factors of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) amidst call for improved diet and exercise necessitated this study. This study, therefore, was designed to investigate the feeding behaviors among health-care workers in a tertiary hospital in southeast Nigeria as a way of assessing their risk profile of NCDs.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Design
The study was a cross-sectional survey designed to study the feeding behavior of health workers in Alex Ekwueme Federal University Teaching Hospital, Abakaliki, a tertiary hospital in southeast Nigeria.
Setting
The study area, Abakaliki, is the capital city of Ebonyi State, Southeastern Nigeria. It is bounded by latitudes 6° 16' N and 6° 21'N and Longitudes 8° 05' E and 8° 10 E covering an area of about 83 square km.[13] This setting is geo-morphologically part of the cross-river plains. As a state capital, its population has been growing over the years since the creation of the state in 1996. The area is home to a tertiary health institution, the Alex Ekwueme Federal University Teaching Hospital, Abakaliki. The hospital with over 5000 staff is the only tertiary health facility that serves the entire state and the bordering states.
Study duration
The study was carried out from May 2019 to November 2019.
Material
The research instrument was a self-administered questionnaire [Appendix 1], which was made of two sections. The first section gathered information on the socio-demographics of the respondents, while the second on their feeding behaviors.
The Feeding behavior section of the questionnaire was adapted from the British Heart Foundation's questions to assess the nutritional value of individuals. The adaptation was based on the objectives of the present study. The questionnaire was designed in a 5 scale Likert format to quantitatively assess the feeding behavior of the respondents. The 28 item Feeding behavior questionnaire was categorized into seven, which include: Eating habit, fruits and vegetable consumption, fats and oil consumption, carbohydrate consumption, refined sugar consumption, salt consumption, and water and alcohol intake.
Eating habit
This section assessed how often one skips various meals and also how often one takes junks as meals. The maximum score on this category is 20, while the minimum score is 4.
Fruits and vegetable consumption
This section assessed how often one eats fruits and vegetables. The maximum score on this category is 15, while the minimum score is 3.
Fats and oil consumption
This section assessed how often one avoids unhealthy fats and oil and how often one chooses healthy ones such as fish oil. The maximum score on this category is 25, while the minimum score is 5.
Carbohydrate consumption
This section assessed the frequency of carbohydrate sources as the main base in meals, how often one chooses cereals, and the inclusion of pulses such as beans, okpa, fio-fio, and lentils as carbohydrate sources in meals. The maximum score on this category is 20, while the minimum score is 4.
Refined sugar consumption
This section assessed one's consumption of refined sugar in foods, fizzy drinks, and confectionaries. The maximum score on this category is 20, while the minimum score is 4.
Salt consumption
This section assessed the quantity of salts one consumes and the healthy practices associated with it. The maximum score on this category is 25, while the minimum score is 5.
Fluid intake
This section assessed the consumption of water, sugary drinks consumption, and the rate of consumption of alcoholic beverages. The maximum score on this category is 15, while the minimum score is 3.
The maximum score on the general feeding behavior questionnaire is 140, while the minimum score is 28. The 5 scale ranking which ranged from “never” to “always” was interpreted to represent three levels of feeding behavior, which is “poor,” “fair,” and “good.” The maximum score shows an ideal feeding behavior, which is required to maintain optimum health and avoid the nutritional risk of metabolic diseases. “Poor” feeding behavior marks a score in the range from 28 to 83; “Fair” feeding behavior marks a score in the range 84–111; while “good” feeding behavior is marked by a score from the range 112–140 points on the scale.
Validation of instrument
The face validity of the instrument was determined by three expert scholars. Its reliability was also tested with a test-retest method. Copies of the questionnaire were first administered to 25 health workers (who did not participate in the main study) and were re-administered after 7 days. Its test-retest reliability yielded correlation coefficients of r = 0.960 (P = 0.001).
Data collection
Health-care workers from Alex Ekwueme Federal University Teaching Hospital Abakaliki were recruited as participants using a convenience sampling method. The Questionnaires were hand distributed to participants at their workstations in the hospital and collected back on the same day after completion.
Sample size calculation
The sample size in the study was determined using the formula[14] for the sample size n:
n = N × X/(X + N– 1),
where,
X = Zα/22 P (1-p)/MOE2, and Zα/2 is the critical value of the Normal distribution at α/2 (e.g., for a confidence level of 95%, α is 0.05 and the critical value is 1.96), MOE is the margin of error, P is the sample proportion, and N is the population size.[14] Accordingly, a minimum sample size of 357 participants was determined in population size of 5000, with an estimated sample proportion of 50%. However, 418 participants participated in the study.
Statistical analysis
Descriptive statistics of mean, standard deviation, frequency, and percentage were used to summarize data. Inferential statistics of independent t-test and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to test for statistical differences between variables at alpha level P < 0.05. Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25 (IBM, New York, USA).
RESULTS
The total number of participants in the study was 418. There were 186 males and 232 females, representing 44.5% and 55.5% of the sample size, respectively. Various professions were represented in the sample. They include medical doctors, nurses, dietitians, physiotherapists, laboratory Scientists, Health information management officers, accountants, administration officers, and pharmacists. Table 1 shows the sociodemographics participants.
Table 1.
Sociodemographics of the participants
| Frequency (%) | |
|---|---|
| Male | 186 (44.5) |
| Female | 232 (55.5) |
| Doctors | 62 (14.8) |
| Nurses | 54 (12.9) |
| Dietitians | 42 (10.0) |
| Physiotherapist | 26 (6.2) |
| Lab Scientists | 30 (7.2) |
| Information officers | 18 (4.3) |
| Accountants | 38 (9.1) |
| Admin officers | 88 (21.0) |
| Dentistry | 28 (6.7) |
| Others | 32 (7.7) |
| Total | 418 (100.0) |
The feeding behaviors of the respondents are shown in Tables 2 and 3.
Table 2.
Feeding behavior of the participants by gender
| Gender | Eating habit | Fruits and vegetable | Fats | Carbs | Sugar | Salt | Fluid intake | Total feeding score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Male | 12.82±2.52 | 8.26±2.05 | 13.31±1.94 | 9.75±2.10 | 12.63±.71 | 16.76±3.10 | 10.09±1.94 | 83.62±7.18 |
| Female | 13.31±2.87 | 9.33±2.59 | 14.04±2.84 | 10.26±2.62 | 13.47±2.84 | 17.15±2.93 | 10.59±2.25 | 88.15±9.00 |
| Total | 13.09±2.72 | 8.85±2.42 | 13.72±2.50 | 10.03±2.41 | 13.10±2.81 | 16.98±3.01 | 10.36±2.13 | 86.13±8.52 |
Table 3.
Feeding behavior of the participants by profession
| Profession | Eating Habit | Fruits and vegetables | Fats | Carbs | Sugar | Salt | Drinks and alcohol | Total feeding score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Doctors | 12.42±2.72 | 8.48 ±2.41 | 13.74±2.19 | 10.48±2.92 | 12.65±3.12 | 17.19±2.98 | 10.48±1.94 | 85.45±9.93 |
| Nurses | 14.48±1.72 | 9.30± 2.33 | 13.48±2.85 | 9.44±2.67 | 13.52±3.52 | 18.15±2.93 | 9.70±1.94 | 88.07±9.36 |
| Dietitians | 13.57±2.22 | 9.24±2.07 | 15.48±3.54 | 10.05±1.66 | 13.24±2.68 | 17.76±2.26 | 10.38±2.27 | 89.71± 9.25 |
| Physiotherapists | 13.62±2.29 | 8.15±1.77 | 13.00±1.58 | 10.54±2.22 | 13.85±2.23 | 17.23±1.59 | 9.77±2.24 | 86.15±8.24 |
| Lab scientists | 13.07±2.15 | 8.80±2.37 | 13.867±2.26 | 9.53±1.85 | 13.80±2.37 | 17.87±2.26 | 9.93±2.12 | 86.87±6.32 |
| Information officers | 13.89±1.90 | 7.44± 2.07 | 12.00±2.24 | 9.00±2.55 | 13.33±1.94 | 17.11±4.46 | 10.89±1.45 | 83.67±9.25 |
| Accountants | 13.32±2.24 | 8.32±2.11 | 14.26±1.33 | 10.53±2.20 | 13.79± 2.70 | 16.47±2.17 | 11.26±1.97 | 87.95±5.88 |
| Teachers | 12.46±3.57 | 9.31±2.36 | 14.08±2.65 | 10.38±2.00 | 13.04±2.60 | 16.35±3.35 | 10.31±2.09 | 85.92±7.91 |
| Admin officers | 12.78±3.84 | 9.78±3.39 | 13.44±2.29 | 9.33± 2.95 | 12.33±3.43 | 15.22±3.99 | 10.22±2.73 | 83.11±9.23 |
| Dentists | 12.93±2.34 | 8.29±2.13 | 13.93±1.73 | 10.14±2.60 | 12.79± 2.36 | 17.36±1.98 | 10.00±2.42 | 85.43±7.25 |
| Others | 11.81±3.04 | 9.06±2.86 | 12.06±2.05 | 10.31±2.33 | 12.13± 2.28 | 15.68±3.44 | 11.31±1.85 | 82.38±7.62 |
| Total | 13.09±2.72 | 8.85±2.42 | 13.72±2.50 | 10.03±2.41 | 13.10±2.80 | 17.00±3.00 | 10.36±2.13 | 86.13±8.52 |
Eating habit
The minimum score was 4 out of 20, while maximum score was 20 out of 20. The mean score of the participants was 13.09 ± 2.72 out of 20. There was no significant difference (P > 0.05) between males and females in this category. The mean score based on the interpretation of the scoring format [Appendix 2] is fair. This means that the eating habit of the participants is suboptimal.
Fruits and vegetable consumption
The minimum score was 3 out of 15, while the maximum score was 15 out of 15. Females have better feeding behavior (P < 0.05) in fruits and vegetable consumption when compared with males. Males have poor behavior (8.26 ± 2.05) in this category. Females have a fair behavior (9.33 ± 2.59) in this category. The mean feeding behavior of the participants in the consumption of fruits and vegetables (8.85 ± 2.14) is fair.
Fats and oil consumption
The mean score of the participants was 13.72 ± 2.50 out of 25. The minimum score was 5, while the maximum score was 23. Although females have a significant (P < 0.05) better behavior in the consumption of fats and oil compare to males, the mean behavior for both gender (13.72 ± 2.50) was poor.
Carbohydrate consumption
The mean score of the participants was 10.03 ± 2.41 out of 20. The minimum score was 4, while the maximum score was 17. Although females have a significant (P < 0.05) better behavior in the consumption of carbohydrates compared to males, the mean behavior for both gender remained poor.
Refined sugar consumption
The mean score of the participants was 13.10 ± 2.81 out of 20. The minimum score was 4, while the maximum score was 19. There was no significant difference (P > 0.05) between males and females in this category. The mean behavior of the participants in the consumption of refined sugar is fair. This means that refined sugar consumption of the participants is suboptimal.
Salt consumption
The mean score of the participants was 17.00 ± 3.01 out of 20. The minimum score was 7, while the maximum score was 25. There was no significant difference (P > 0.05) between males and females in this category. The mean behavior of the participants in salt consumption is fair. This means that the salt consumption of the participants is also suboptimal.
Fluids intake
The mean score of the participants was 10.36 ± 2.13 out of 15. The minimum score was 5, while the maximum score was 15. There was no significant difference (P > 0.05) between males and females in this category. The mean behavior of the participants in the intake of fluids is fair. This means that the intake of fluids of the participants is equally suboptimal.
The mean score of the entire participants was 86.13 ± 8.52 out of 140. The minimum score of the participants was 65, while the maximum score was 115. Although females have a significant (P < 0.05) better overall feeding behavior (88.15 ± 9.00) compared to males (83.62 ± 7.18), the mean feeding behavior for both genders (86.13 ± 8.52) remained fair, which is suboptimal.
DISCUSSION
The study showed that health-care workers in the tertiary health institution in Southeast Nigeria had overall fair feeding behavior. It showed that the population was relatively at risk of NCDs. It also showed from the study that females had a statistically significant overall better feeding behaviour compared to males. However, none of the gender had good feeding behaviour. Each gender's score was within the “fair” range on the scale. There was no significant difference across various professions. Dietitians did not have any behavioral advantage over other professionals despite their wealth of knowledge in human nutrition.
The implication is that the studied population cannot be exempted from the global call and awareness on healthy feeding behavior to prevent NCDs. This study has a similar result with a study in South Africa, where Kunene and Taukobong reported poor eating habits among health professionals in a health facility in South Africa.[8] Similar study in Jos, Nigeria, reported “largely fair” nutritional knowledge and practice among health professionals.[9] Another study reported by Betancourt-Nuñez et al.,[15] stated that health-care workers in Mexico also reported unhealthy feeding behavior.
The score in the consumption of fruits and vegetables was actually approximated to the nearest whole number to meet the “fair” range. A significant gender-related difference was observed, where females reported to eat fruits and vegetables more frequently than males. This finding is similar to that of another study carried out in Finland and Baltic countries in which females have been found to eat healthier diets than males, including fruits and vegetables.[16] Furthermore, in a similar study in Saudi Arabia, females were observed to eat fruits and vegetables more than males.[17] The WHO, in 2003, recommends adequate consumption of fruits and vegetables (5 portions a day) to maintain optimum health.[6] It is shown that the recommendation may not have been met among health-care workers in the study population.
The study population had poor feeding behavior in the consumption of fats and oil. Females had better behavior in this category when compared to males. Dieticians had a fair, which put them on behavioral advantage over other health workers in terms of consumption of fats and oil. However, there is the unhealthy practice in the consumption of fats and oil, which shows a high risk of certain disease conditions, including cardiovascular diseases and metabolic diseases.[6]
There is unhealthy behavior in the consumption of carbohydrate sources of food among the study population. The recommendation of Republic of South African Department of Health 2013 official gazette on Guidelines for healthy eating stated that legumes (e.g., lentils and beans), nuts and whole grains (e.g., unprocessed maize, oats, wheat, and brown rice) should be focused on as the main source of carbohydrates because it a healthy source of carbohydrate in a healthy quantity.[18] This was noticed to be almost absent among the participants in this study.
On salt intake, the overall behavior of the health-care workers is fair, unlike a study reported by Bhattacharya et al. in 2018[19] among urban slum populations of North India. The same was reported in another study in a Chinese population by Lin et al.[20] Another study among Jordanian citizens confirms the same poor salt habit, adding that the citizens are mostly unaware of its negative impact on their health.[21] The implication is that the studied population cannot also be exempted from the global call and awareness of the healthy practice of salt consumption to prevent diseases.
It is recommended that adults should consume at least 3 L of water daily.[22] The study population had fair behavior in water consumption. A study by Douglass et al.,[23] among dietitians in the UK shows that the majority of dietitians rated their personal hydration practices as bad or average despite reporting the use of water dispensing facilities at their place of work.
The participants were assessed on the recommendation of the British Heart Foundation, which advocated that Men and women should not drink more than 14 units of alcohol each week.[22] Health-care workers studied had a fair behavior in alcohol consumption. This is also in line with the UK Department of Health recommendation in 2016.[24]
CONCLUSION
The study showed that the health-care workers in the tertiary health institution in southeast Nigeria have inadequate feeding behavior. They are, therefore, relatively at risk of NCDs. Females have a significant overall better feeding behavior when compared to males in the study population. However, none of the genders had good feeding behavior. Each gender's score was within the “fair” range on the scale. There was no significant difference in feeding behavior across various professions. The implication is that health-care workers, who are publicly seen as custodians of nutritional health information, cannot be exempted from the global call and awareness on healthy feeding behavior to prevent and reduce the burden of NCDs.
Financial support and sponsorship
Nil.
Conflicts of interest
There are no conflicts of interest.
APPENDIXES
Appendix 1: Questionnaire
Dear Respondent,
We need your co-operation to carry out research on physical activity, feeding behavior, and anthropometric indices of metabolic disorders among civil health workers in Alex Ekwueme University Teaching Hospital Abakaliki. Your views on these questions are strictly confidential.
INSTRUCTION:
Please tick (✓) to answers that are most suitable to you and supply the appropriate answers where necessary.
SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC DATA
1. Gender: □ Male □ Female □
2. Age: 20-29 □ 30-39 □ 40-49 □ 50 and above □
3. Marital Status: Single □ Married □ Separated □
Divorced □ widowed
4. What is your profession? ------------------------------
5. Monthly Income level:
Below 50,000 □ 50,000 – 99,000 □ 100,000 – 200,000 □
200,000-500,000 □ 500,000 and above □
6. What is your grade level? ____________________
7. Family type: Polygamous □ Monogamous □
8. How many children do you have? Not yet 1 -2
3-4 □ More than 4 □
9. Other dependents living with you apart from spouse and children?
None □ 1 □ 2 □ 3 □ More than 3 □
10. Do you have any children less than 18 years, living with you? Yes□No□
SECTION B: HOW HEALTHY IS YOUR DIET? QUESTIONNAIRE
This questionnaire (Adapted from British Heart Foundation) is designed to assess the nutritional value of your feeding behavior. Please tick (√) to answers that are most suitable to you
| Food | Never | Rarely | Sometimes | Often | Always |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Eating habits | |||||
| 1. How often do you skip breakfast more than once a week? | |||||
| 2. How often do you skip lunch more than once a week? | |||||
| 3. How often do you skip evening meals more than once a week? | |||||
| 4. How often do you take snack instead of meals? | |||||
| Fruits and vegetables | |||||
| 5. How often do you eat >5 portions of fruit and/or vegetables? Remember that fruit juice only counts as 1 portion a day, regardless of how much you drink. The same applies to dried fruit. Potatoes count as starchy foods and not as vegetables. As a guide, a portion is about a handful | |||||
| 6. How often do you eat >4 different varieties of fruit each week? | |||||
| 7. How often do you eat >4 different varieties of vegetables each week? | |||||
| Fats | |||||
| 8. How often do you choose low-fat products when available? | |||||
| 9. How often do you eat fried foods (such as stew, crisps and snacks, or fish and chips)? | |||||
| 10. How often do you opt for lean cuts of meat or remove visible fat - for example, removing the skin on chicken or the rind on (bacon) pork? | |||||
| 11. How often do you eat oily fish? Examples of oily fish include salmon, mackerel, herring, sardines, scumbia, and fresh tuna | |||||
| 12. How often do you include unsalted nuts and seeds (e.g., groundnut) in your diet? | |||||
| Starchy foods | |||||
| 13. How often do you base your main meals around starchy foods? For example, yam, foo-foo, potatoes, pasta, rice or bread | |||||
| 14. How often do you choose wheat bread or rolls rather than white bread? | |||||
| 15. How often do you regularly eat wholegrain cereals (e.g. quacker oat), with no added sugar? | |||||
| 16. How often do you include pulses in your diet? For example, beans, okpa, fio-fio and lentils | |||||
| Sugar | |||||
| 17. How often do you eat sugar-coated breakfast cereals or add sugar to your breakfast cereals (e.g. Golden morn)? | |||||
| 18. How often do you add sugar to your drinks? | |||||
| 19. How often do you drink sweet fizzy (soft) drinks? | |||||
| 20. How often do you eat cakes, sweets, chocolate, or biscuits at work? | |||||
| Salt | |||||
| 21. How often do you add salt to food during cooking? | |||||
| 22. How often do you add salt to meals at the table? | |||||
| 23. How often do you eat savory snacks at work? For example, crisps, or salted nuts | |||||
| 24. How often do you eat preprepared meals? For example, preprepared sandwiches, ready meals, or canned soups | |||||
| 25. How often do you eat processed meats such as ham or bacon, sugar, or smoked fish? | |||||
| Fluids | |||||
| 26. How often do you drink up to 3 L(5-6 satchets) of water daily? | |||||
| 27. How often do you take sugary fizzy (soft) drinks? | |||||
| 28. How often do you drink >2-3 units of alcohol a day if you’re a woman or more than 3-4 (1 bottle of beer) units of alcohol a day if you’re a man? |
Appendix 2.
Scoring format for the feeding behavior
| Poor | Fair | Good | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Eating habit | 4-11 | 12-15 | 16-20 |
| Fruits and vegetables | 3-8 | 9-11 | 12-15 |
| Fats and oil | 5-14 | 15-19 | 20-25 |
| Carbohydrates | 4-11 | 12-15 | 16-20 |
| Refined sugar | 4-11 | 12-15 | 16-20 |
| Salts | 5-14 | 15-19 | 20-25 |
| Drinks and alcohol | 3-8 | 9-11 | 12-15 |
| Total | 28-83 | 84-111 | 112-140 |
| Interpretation | Poor feeding behavior | Fair feeding behavior | Good feeding behavior |
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