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. 2021 Oct 11;2021:5212348. doi: 10.1155/2021/5212348

Ethnotherapeutic Uses and Phytochemical Composition of Physalis peruviana L.: An Overview

Félicien Mushagalusa Kasali 1,2,3,✉, Jonans Tusiimire 3, Justin Ntokamunda Kadima 4, Casim Umba Tolo 1, Anke Weisheit 1, Amon Ganafa Agaba 5
PMCID: PMC8523295  PMID: 34671227

Abstract

Background

Plant-derived medicines are widespread and continue to increase in traditional and modern medicine, especially in developing countries. Physalis peruviana L. is among the most used plants in conventional medication worldwide. This review aimed to highlight the ethnotherapeutic uses and phytochemical status of identified compounds in P. peruviana.

Methods

Data were collected from Google Scholar, PubMed/Medline, SciFinder, Science Direct, Scopus, the Wiley Online Library, Web of Science, and any other helpful search engine using Physalis peruviana as the primary keyword.

Results

Some countries, worldwide, use P. peruviana in their traditional medicine system to manage diverse ailments, mainly diseases and gastrointestinal tract disorders (25.33%). Leaf was the mostly used part (49.28%), prepared by decoction (31.58%) and overall administrated orally (53.57%) as the main route of admission. Around 502 phytoconstituents were identified in different plant parts, especially fruit (38.19%) ethanol/ethyl acetate extract. In most cases (36.17%), the solvent of the extract was not specified. Several phytochemical classes were found in the plant, especially terpenes (26.09%) and phenolic compounds (14.94%). Esters were also abundant (11.55%). In the terpenes category, carotenoids were the most abundant (11.15% followed by monoterpenes (8.76%) and diterpenes (3.18%). However, flavonoids (5.17%) followed by cinnamic acid derivatives (3.99%), monophenolic compounds (1.79%), and phenolic acids (1.33 M) are the most reported phenolic compounds. Hexadecanoic acid (palmitic acid) was the most cited (five times).

Conclusion

P. peruviana plays an essential role in managing diseases in some countries and is rich in chemical compounds, which need to be isolated and investigated pharmacologically before clinical trials.

1. Introduction

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), about 80% of the population in developing countries uses herbal medicine to meet their primary healthcare requirements [1]. Humans have used natural products since prehistoric times, which include animals, marine organisms, microorganisms, and plants, in medicines to prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases [2]. Plants still contribute primarily to health care, so many specific herbal extracts have been demonstrated to be productive for particular conditions [3]. More than 50,000 plants would possess therapeutic virtues globally. In Africa and Asia, it is estimated that more than 80 percent of the population uses traditional medicine for primary health care. This form of therapy remains prevalent in all world regions, and its use is rapidly spreading in developed countries [4].

Physalis peruviana (Solanaceae) is a native plant from the Andean region and a semiupright herbaceous shrub or perennial, producing a group of branched stems native to the Andean region. P. peruviana is adapted to a wide range of altitudes, soils, and climatic conditions. It is also the most widely distributed species from the Physalis. Physalis genus contains several species with a long history of ethnomedical use to treat diverse diseases, especially asthma, cancer, dermatitis, hepatitis, bacterial infections, kidney and liver disorders, and malaria and has immunomodulatory antipyretic properties [5]. It contains different types of compounds, including physalins and alkaloids, flavonoids, carotenoids, vitamins, and polysaccharides [6, 7]. The health benefits of the plant are related to the content of phytochemicals.

This report summarizes ethnomedicinal use and phytoconstituents identified in P. peruviana. Previous reviews have been focused on nutritional values, pharmacological evidence, and phytochemical profiling of isolated compounds from the plant [8].

This review aimed to highlight the ethnotherapeutic use and phytochemical status of identified compounds in P. peruviana L.

2. Literature Review Method

Different search databases, including Google Scholar, PubMed/Medline, Science Direct, Scopus, the Wiley Online Library, Web of Science, and any other helpful search engines using P. peruviana as the primary keyword, were used. Full articles in English or French languages were retrieved without time limit restriction.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Ethnopharmacological Data of P. peruviana L

The following Table 1 presents the uses of P. peruviana in traditional medicines in different countries.

Table 1.

Ethnomedicinal uses of P. peruviana L. in different countries.

Countries Vernacular names Part(s) used Traditional uses Formulation/method of administration Voucher number References
Cameroon — Twigs Cancer or disease relevance to cancer or cancer-like symptoms — Yes [9]
Ajijieuh Leaf and stem Bile, swelling of legs and ankles for pregnant women Maceration/oral Yes [10]
Ma pe pie Leaf and stem Fungal infections Maceration/oral Yes [11]
Colombia Uchuva Fruit Ear pain and diabetes — No [12]
Uchuva Fruit Conjunctivitis and prevention of cataract Juice/oral No [13]
Equator Uvilla Flower Disinfectant and healing of wounds Decoction/bathe Yes [14]
Democratic Republic of the Congo Mbuma Leaf Malaria, intestinal worms, and splenomegaly Decoction and infusion/oral Yes [15]
Mbuma, Mbupuru, Umuhire Aerial part Diabetes mellitus, colic in children, spleen, malaria, and      
inflammation Decoction/oral No [16]      
Mpuhuhu Whole plant Helminthiasis Maceration/oral Yes [17]
India Donam as Fruit Gastric Mastication/oral No [18]
Fatki Leaf and root Leucorrhea and hydrocele Decoction/oral No [19]
Kitutu Leaf Induction of labor and ease childbirth Decoction/oral No [20]
Kopalphoota Whole plant Jaundice Raw/oral No [21]
Phakphake Ripe fruit Throat sore Mastication/oral Yes 0032 [22]
Pottipalam Leaf and dried seed Jaundice and glaucoma — No [23]
Rashbhari Leaf Abdominal disorder during pregnancy Juice/oral No [24]
Tsiibobopro Leaf and fruit Diarrhea and dysentery Decoction and raw/oral No [25]
Sodukku thakkali Whole plant Skin diseases Extraction/- No [26]
— Leave Jaundice Decoction/oral No [27]
— Whole plant Gout — No [28]
— Leaf Jaundice Paste/- Yes [29]
Indonesia Depuk-depuk Fruit and whole plant Smallpox Decoction/oral No [30]
Pultak-pulta All parts of the plant Stomach ache Decoction/oral No [31]
Java Ciplukan Leaf and fruit Diabetes mellitus — No [32]
Kenya Embunwe, emiilwa (wanga) Stem, root, fruit, and leaf Inflammation and abdominal ailmentsΨ Raw and infusion/poultices and enema No [33]
Mayengo Leaf Malaria Decoction/steam inhalation Yes [34]
Mŭnathi Leaf Postpartum pain Decoction/oral No [35]
Mŭnathi Leaf Anthelmintic, postpartum pains, and typhoid — No [36]
Mŭnathi Seed, bulb, fruit, leaf, and root Diarrhea — No [37]
— Leaf Diabetes, malaria, and pneumonia Decoction/oral No [38]
— Leaf Typhoid and pneumonia Decoction/- No [39]
Nepal Gangathopa Root Jaundice Maceration/oral No [40]
Ram bhutka, Jangali mewa Root Piles — No [41]
— Leaf Sore throat and abdominal pain Juice/oral No [42]
New Guinea Mondon Leaf Boils and ulcers Heating/topical application on to cuts and scratches∗ No [43]
Rwanda Umuhuhu Leaf Facilitates the issuance of the placenta and abortifacient — No [44]
South Africa Igquzu Leaf Diarrhea and associated ailments. As food/oral No [45]
Igquzu Leaf Diarrhea Decoction/oral Yes [46]
— Whole plant and leaf Cancer Decoction/oral DS00095 [47]
Tanzania Kitutun kikubwa Leaf Malaria Maceration/oral Yes [48]
Msupu Leaf Skin fungal infections Juice/topical application∗ Yes [49]
Ntuntunu Fruit Typhoid fever Juice/oral Yes [50]
Uganda Entuutu Leaf and fruit Snakebite Infusion/oral No [51]
Entuutu Fresh leaf Skin problems in babies Decoction/bathe∗ No [52]
Entuutu — Wounds (fresh) — No [53]
Kitutu Leaf Induce of labor during childbirth Juice/oral No [54]
Ntuntunu enene Leaf Vomiting Smoked and infusion/bathe Yes [55]
Ntuntunu Leaf Malaria Decoction/oral∗ Yes [56]
Decoction/oral∗
Ntuntunu Leaf Infections (antibacterial) Juice/oral No [57]
Ntutunu enene Fruit Ear and eye infection Chewing and swallowing/oral Yes [58]
Ntutunu enene Aerial part and leaf HIV/AIDS — Yes [59]
— Whole plant Rash and ringworm Juice/- Yes [60]
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Veterinary use (Ψ); specific characteristics (∗); not specified (—).

According to this table (Table 1), fourteen countries worldwide use P. peruviana in their traditional medicinal system to treat several diseases. India represented the most cited country with twelve references, followed by Uganda (10), Kenya (7), Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Nepal, South Africa, and Tanzania, each with three references. Colombia and Indonesia were cited only twice.

Referring to the number of diseases treated by country, India is the most representative country (20.27%), followed by Uganda (16.22%), the Democratic Republic of Congo (12.16%), Cameroon (6.76%), Colombia, Nepal, and South Africa (5.41%). It is known that the plant (mainly le fruit) is produced predominantly in Colombia and South Africa but exported in Netherlands, Germany, Belgium, and Canada [61]. However, its use in traditional medicine is widespread in other countries, including India and Uganda.

The plant is widely known in various local names and used in Ayurvedic medicine for many human and animal purposes. The fruit is available from January to April [62]. In Uganda, the plant grows naturally in abandoned bush fallows, and it is helpful for income. It has been identified as a priority plant for commercialization (used popularly for its berries and associated derivative products such as juice, jam, and wine). It is also used as food and has medicinal applications [63].

Local names, parts used, traditional utilization, preparation, and administration modes were documented.

Figure 1 indicates that the leaves are the most used part (49.28%) followed by fruits (14.49%), whole plant (11.59%), roots (7.5%), stem (4.35%), aerial parts, and seeds (2.90%). However, bulbs, flowers, ripe fruits, and twigs were cited once (1.45%). In some cases, the used parts were not specified (1.45%). Leaves are the most used in the formulation of remedies, as indicated above. The frequent use of leaves is associated with ease of accessibility among the aboveground parts of plants in natural ecosystems [50].

Figure 1.

Figure 1

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Frequencies of parts used.

Decoction has often been found as the effective formulation of herbal remedies as it is easy to prepare by mixing a drug with boiling water [64]. In this study (Figure 2), the decoction was used in almost 31.58% of all cases. However, other preparation modes have been found including juice (14.04%), maceration (8.77%), infusion (7.02%), extraction, and raw material (3.51%). In 19.30% of cases, the preparation mode was not reported.

Figure 2.

Figure 2

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Frequencies of formulations.

P. peruviana is indicated to treat various diseases, mainly in humans. Rarely, it is used in the management of diseases in veterinary medicine. For example, in western Kenya, it is used for livestock tick prevention and control. The results in Figure 3 show that diseases and disorders of the gastrointestinal tract were the most treated by the plant (25.33%), followed by female genital tract and breast (13.33%), skin (9.33%), liver and biliary tract (8.01%), eye and ear (8.01%), immune system (5.33%), endocrine system (5.33%), respiratory system (2.67%), and metabolic disorders (2.67%). Diseases of bones, joints, skeletal muscle, and body fluid-related diseases and disorders represent 1.33%. Another category of diseases, including helminthiasis, inflammations, malaria, snake bite, fungal infections, bacterial infections, and smallpox, represents 17.33%. About 4000 species had ethnomedical data supporting the use of these plants to treat, and most of them were native to tropical countries due to the extraordinary biodiversity in these countries [65].

Figure 3.

Figure 3

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Frequencies of diseases and disorders treated.

Mostly, oral route is the way of drug administration based on different formulations. Because of safety, good patient compliance, ease of ingestion, pain avoidance, and versatility to accommodate various types of drugs, the oral administration route is preferred over the different other administration routes of drug delivery [66]. Nevertheless, the route of the administration is not specified in a few cases (20.41%). Secondarily, bathe, tropical application, scratches, and steam inhalation are reported (Figure 4).

Figure 4.

Figure 4

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Frequencies of routes of administration.

There are some specific indications in formulations or modes of drug administration. For example, in India, the plant is associated with Impatiens roylei and Stephania hernandifolia to treat jaundice. In the same way, in Uganda, the plant is combined with Solanum esculentum and Solanum melongena to manage skin problems in babies and honey in treating malaria. It is possible that combining several plants can produce a more pronounced pharmacological response than using a single plant due to the synergy of action between different constituents. According to Sofowora et al. [67], the combined effects were much more effective than individual ones. Rarely, duration of treatment and posology were mentioned. However, those two factors depended on the type of diseases treated and the parts used. For example, in Uganda, treating malaria needs seven days by taking two teaspoons three times a day of a decoction or half a glass thrice a day. In Tanzania, an application of leaf juice on the affected area twice a day was indicated to treat skin fungal infections or heating/topical application on to cuts and scratches in New Guinea for boils and ulcers. In Nepal, the treatment of jaundice in children could take from four to ten days.

The voucher number of plant material was not specified in 63.46% against 36.54%. Overall, in research studies that involved plant or animal materials, providing voucher specimens is necessary for several reasons. The main reason is to keep a permanent record documenting the plant used in a specific study to trace the true identity and source of the plant material [68]. In most cases, the plant species look alike (morphologically and chemically), and it is quite possible to have a confusing error when harvesting. To be reassured of the real identity of the plant, it is crucial to have it authenticated with an expert, for example, a botanist. In the event of a future contestation, the voucher number recorded in the herbarium will always be essential to confirm the integrity of its identity. It is also vital for reproducibility, which is very critical in research.

3.2. Phytoconstituents Identified in Different Parts of P. peruviana L

Table 2 summarizes the chemical compounds identified and characterized from other parts and extracts of P. peruviana. Therefore, various classes of phytoconstituents have been found, including terpenes (monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, triterpenes, and carotenoids), phenolic compounds (phenolic acids, phenolic esters, phenolic aldehydes, chalcones, coumarins, cinnamic acid derivatives, flavonoids, and glucosides), alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, lactones, steroids and withanolides, alkaloids, sucrose esters, glucosides, siloxanes, vitamins, phytoprostanes, phytol derivatives, enols, heterocycles, alkanes, alkenes, benzimidazoles, and diverse functional groups.

Table 2.

Chemical compounds identified from different parts and extracts of P. peruviana.

Organs Phytoconstituents Source References
Aerial parts 3α-Tigloylnxytropane Ethanol [69]
3β-Acetoxytropane Ethanol [69]
Antheraxanthin Hexane/acetone/ethanol [70]
Cuscohygrine Ethanol [69]
Hygrine Ethanol [69]
Lutein Hexane/acetone/ethanol [70]
Neoxanthin Hexane/acetone/ethanol [70]
N-Methylpyrrolidinylhygrine A Ethanol [69]
N-Methylpyrrolidinylhygrine B Ethanol [69]
Physoperuvine Ethanol [69]
Phytofluene Hexane/acetone/ethanol [70]
Tropine Ethanol [69]
Violaxanthin Hexane/acetone/ethanol [70]
Zeaxanthin Hexane/acetone/ethanol [70]
γ-Carotene Hexane/acetone/ethanol [70]
Body (S)-4-Iodo-1,2-epoxybutane — [71]
1,1,1,5,7,7,7-Heptamethyl-3,3 bis(trimethylsiloxy) tetrasiloxane — [71]
1,2,3-Tri(t-butyl) cyclopropenylium tribromide — [71]
1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid — [71]
3,3-Dimethyl-hexane — [71]
3,3-Dimethyl-octane — [71]
Diethyl ester — [71]
Docosane — [71]
Eicosamethyl cyclodecasiloxane — [71]
Eicosamethyl cyclodecasiloxane — [71]
Calyces (all-E)-Lutein Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (all-E)-Lutein 3-O-myristate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (all-E)-Neoxanthin Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (all-E)-Neoxanthin palmitate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (all-E)-Taraxanthin Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (all-E)-Taraxanthin ester Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (all-E)-Violaxanthin Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (all-E)-Violaxanthin or (all-E)-neoxanthin ester Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (all-E)-α-Carotene Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (all-E)-α-Cryptoxanthin myristate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (E)-Vanillic acid Ethyl acetate [73]
  (E)-α-Carotene Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (Z)-Lutein 1 Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (Z)-Lutein 2 Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (Z)-Lutein ester Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (Z)-Taraxanthin Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (Z)-Taraxanthin-⍺-linolenic acid Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (Z)-β-Carotene Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  ⍺-Copaeneol Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  13-Epimanool Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  16-B1-PhytoP Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  16α-Methylpregnenolone Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  17,27-Dihydroxylated withaloid D isomer 1 Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  2,3-Dihydro-17,27-hydroxylated withanolide D derivative Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  2,3-Dihydro-27-hydroxylated withanolide D isomer 1 Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  2,3-Dihydro-27-hydroxylated withanolide D isomer 2 Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  2,3-Dihydro-27-hydroxy-4β- hydroxywithanolide E isomer Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  2,3-Dihydro-4β-hydroxywithanolide E Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  2,3-Dihydro-hydroxylated 4β-hydroxywithanolide E derivative Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  2′,4′-Dimethoxy-3-hydroxy-6-methylflavone Methanol [75]
  2′,5′-Dimethoxyflavone Methanol [75]
  27-Hydroxy-4β-hydroxywithanolide E isomer Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  2-Hydroxy-2′,4′,6′-trimethoxychalcone Methanol [75]
  3-(3,4-Dimethoxyphenyl)-6-methyl-4-phenylcoumarin Methanol [75]
  3-(3,4-Dimethoxyphenyl)-7- hydroxy-4-methylcoumarin Methanol [75]
  3,2′,4′,5′,6-Pentamethoxyflavone Methanol [75]
  3,4,5-Methoxy cinnamic Ethyl acetate [73]
  3,5,3′,5′-Tetra-tert-butyldiphenoquinone Methanol [75]
  3,6,2′,3′-Tetramethoxyflavone Methanol [75]
  3,6,3′,4′-Tetramethoxyflavone Methanol [75]
  3′-Benzyloxy-5,6,7,4′-tetramethoxyflavone Methanol [75]
  3-Hydroxy-7,8,2′-trimethoxyflavone Methanol [75]
  3-O-Caffeoylquinic acid Methanol/water/formic acid [76]
  3-O-Feruloylquinic acid Methanol/water/formic acid [76]
  3-O-p-Coumaroylquinic acid Methanol/water/formic acid [76]
  4,4-Dimethyl-5-α-cholestane-3-one Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  4-Aminobenzoic acid Ethyl acetate [73]
  4-Hydroxy chalcone Methanol [75]
  4-O-Feruloylquinic acid Methanol/water/formic acid [76]
  5-(7a-Isopropenyl-4,5-dimethyl-octahydroinden-4-yl)- 3-methyl-pent-2-en-1-ol Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  5,6-Epoxy-β-carotene Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  5-O-Caffeoylquinic acid (chlorogenic acid) Methanol/water/formic acid [76]
  5-O-Feruloylquinic acid Methanol/water/formic acid [76]
  7-Hydroxycoumarin-3- carboxylic acid Methanol [75]
  7δ-Ergosterol Ethanol/Ethyl acetate [74]
  9-D1t-PhytoP Methanol [76]
  9-Epi-9-D1t-PhytoP Methanol [76]
  9-Epi-9-F1t-PhytoP Methanol [76]
  9-F1t-PhytoP Methanol [76]
  9-L1-PhytoP Methanol [76]
  Acecetin Ethyl acetate [73]
  Ambrial Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Apg 6 arabinose 8 glucose Ethyl acetate [73]
  Apg 6 glucose 8 rhamnose Ethyl acetate [73]
  Apg 6 rhamnose 8 glucose Ethyl acetate [73]
  Apig-7-O-neohespiroside Ethyl acetate [73]
  Apigenin Ethyl acetate [73]
  Apigenin 7 glucose Ethyl acetate [73]
  Benzoic acid Ethanol/Ethyl acetate [74]
  Biotin Methanol [75]
  Caffeic acid Ethanol/Ethyl acetate [74]
  Caffeine Ethyl acetate [73]
  Catechol Ethyl acetate [73]
  Chlorogenic acid Ethyl acetate [73]
  Chlorophyll a Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  Chlorophyll a derivative Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  Chlorophyll b Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  Chlorophyll b derivative 2 Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  Cinnamic acid Ethyl acetate [73]
  Coniferol Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Copalol isomer 1 Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Copalol isomer 2 Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Copalol isomer 3 Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Coumarin Ethyl acetate [73]
  Cryptomeridiol Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Diepicedrene-1-oxide Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Dihydro-4β-hydroxywithanolide E Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Dihydromanoyl oxide 1 Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Dihydromanoyl oxide 2 Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Dihydromanoyl oxide 3 Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Dihydromanoyl oxide 4 Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Dihydromanoyloxide-7-carboxylic acid methyl ester Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Di-O-isobutanoyl-O-(2-methylbutanoyl)-O-pentenoylsucrose Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Di-O-isobutanoylsucrose Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Di-O-isobutanoyl-O-nonanoylsucrose Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Di-O-isobutanoyl-O-decanoylsucrose Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Di-O-isobutanoyl-O-octanoylsucrose Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Di-O-isobutanoyl-O-pentenoylsucrose Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Ellagic acid Ethyl acetate [73]
  Ent-16-B1-PhytoP Methanol [76]
  Ent-9-L1-PhytoP Methanol [76]
  Ent-16-epi-16-F1t-PhytoP Methanol [76]
  Ent-16-F1t-PhytoP Methanol [76]
  Epicatechin Ethyl acetate [73]
  Epimanoyl oxide Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Eudesmadienol Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Farnesol acetate Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Ferulic acid-hexoside Methanol [76]
  Feruloylquinic acid Methanol [76]
  Friedelan-3-one Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Ferulic acid Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Gallic acid Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Gardenin Methanol [75]
  Germacratrienol isomer 1 Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Germacratrienol isomer 2 Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Germacratrienol isomer 3 Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Hesperetin Ethyl acetate [73]
  Hydroxylated 4β-hydroxywithanolide E derivative Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Isoaromadendrene epoxide Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Isoferulic acid Ethyl acetate [73]
  Isorhamnetin Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Isovitexin Methanol [75]
  Kaempferol Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Kaempferol-3-O-rhamnosyl(1⟶6)glucoside Methanol/water/formic acid [76]
  Kaempferol-3-O-rhamnosyl(1⟶6)glucoside- 7-O-glucoside Methanol/water/formic acid [76]
  Kaempferol-hexoside Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Kaempferol-rutinoside Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Kamp3(2-p-manryl)glucose Ethyl acetate [73]
  Kamp3-7 di-rhamnoside Ethyl acetate [73]
  Khusiol Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Limonene Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Luteo 6 glucose 8 arabinose Ethyl acetate [73]
  Luteo 7 glucose Ethyl acetate [73]
  Maalialcohol Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Methyl-3,7-bis(acetyloxy)cholestan-26-oate Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Methylprednisolone succinate Methanol [75]
  Myricetin Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Naringin Ethyl acetate [73]
  Naringenin Ethyl acetate [73]
  O-Butanoyl-di-O-isobutanoylsucrose Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  O-Decanoyl-O-isobutanoylsucrose Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  O-Isobutanoyl-O-(2-methylbutanoyl)-O-octanoylsucrose Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  O-Isobutanoyl-O-(2-methylbutanoyl)-O-pentenoylsucrose Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  O-Isobutanoyl-O-(2-methylbutanoyl)sucrose Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  O-Isobutanoyl-O-octenoylsucrose Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  O-Isobutanoylsucrose Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  p-Coumaric acid Ethanol/ethyl acetate, ethyl acetate [73, 74]
  Pheophytin a Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  p-Hydroxy benzoic acid Ethyl acetate [73]
  Phytoene Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  Phytol Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Protocatechuic acid Ethanol/ethyl acetate, ethyl acetate [73, 74]
  Pyrogallol Ethyl acetate [73]
  Quercetin Methanol, ethanol/ethyl acetate, ethyl acetate [74]
  Quercetin-3-O-glucoside Methanol/water/formic acid [76]
  Quercetin-3-O-rhamnosyl(1⟶6)glucoside-7-O-glucoside Methanol/water/formic acid [76]
  Quercetin-hexoside Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Quercetrin Ethyl acetate [73]
  Rhamncetin Ethyl acetate [73]
  Rosmarinic acid Ethyl acetate [73]
  Quercetin-3-O-rutinoside Methanol/water/formic acid, ethanol/ethyl acetate [74, 76]
  Salicylic acid Ethyl acetate [73]
  Sclareol Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Sclareol oxide Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Sesquichamene Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Sesquiterpeneol isomer Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Spironolactone Methanol [75]
  trans-Geranylgeraniol Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Tyrosol Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Vanillic acid Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Vanillin Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Vitexin Methanol [75]
  Withanolide D isomer Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Withanolide E isomer 1 Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Withanolide E isomer 2 Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Withanolide E isomer 3 Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  Xanthine Methanol [75]
  α-13,13-Dimethylpodocarp-7-en-3⍺-ol Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  ⍺-Coumaric acid Ethyl acetate [73]
  ⍺-Elemol Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  α-Tocopherol Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  α-Tocopherol-β-D-mannoside Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  β-Sitosterol Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  β-Tocopherol Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  δ-Cadinol Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  δ-Terpineol Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
  δ-Tocopherol Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74]
Fruits (-)-Caryophyllene oxide — [77]
(5á)-Pregnane-3,20á-diol Juice [78]
(9Z)-β-Carotene Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Antheraxanthin myristate-palmitate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Lutein Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Lutein 3′-O-palmitate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Lutein 3-O-myristate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Lutein 3-O-palmitate-3′-O-myristate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Lutein dimyristate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Lutein dipalmitate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Neoxanthin Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Neoxanthin dipalmitate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Neoxanthin myristate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Neoxanthin palmitate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Taraxanthin Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Taraxanthin ester Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Violaxanthin Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Violaxanthin dimyristate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Violaxanthin dipalmitate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Violaxanthin myristate-palmitate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Zeaxanthin dimyristate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Zeaxanthin dipalmitate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Zeaxanthin myristate-palmitate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Zeinoxanthin Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-α-Carotene Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-α-Cryptoxanthin Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-α-Cryptoxanthin myristate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-α-Cryptoxanthin palmitate    
  Palmitate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (E)-2-Hexenol — [79]
  (E)-Non-2-enal Dichloromethane [80]
  (E)-α-Carotene Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (E2, Z6)-Nona-2,6-dienal Dichloromethane [80]
  (S)-4-Iodo-1,2-epoxybutane — [71]
  (Z)-Lutein 1 Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (Z)-Lutein ester Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (Z)-Neoxanthin- or (Z)-violaxanthin ester Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (Z)-Stigmasta-5,24(28)-dien-3β-ol Dichloromethane [80]
  (Z)-Taraxanthin Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (Z)-β-Carotene Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (Z)-γ-Carotene Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  ∆5-Avenasterol Crude oil [81, 82]
  ∆7-Avenasterol Crude oil [81, 82]
  1,1,1,5,7,7,7-Heptamethyl-3,3 bis(trimethylsiloxy) tetrasiloxane — [71]
  1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D2 Juice [71]
  1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid — [71]
  1,8-Menthadien-4-ol — [77]
  1-Phenyl-1,2-propanediol — [79]
  2,3-Diethyl-5-methyl pyrazine Hexane and ethanol [83]
  2,3-Dimethyl-1-butanol — [77]
  2-Acetyl-1-pyrroline Dichloromethane [80]
  2-Butanone — [77]
  2-Heptanol — [79]
  2-Heptanone — [77]
  2-Methylbutanal — [77]
  2-Methylbutanol — [77, 79]
  2-Methylbutanoic acid — [79]
  2-Methylbutyl acetate — [77]
  2-Methylpropanol — [79]
  2-Methylpropanoic acid — [79]
  2-Methylpropanal Dichloromethane [80]
  2-Methylpropenal — [77]
  2-Nonadecanol — [77]
  2-Norbornanone — [77]
  2-Pentanone — [77]
  2-Phenyl ethyl alcohol Juice [78]
  2-Phenylacetaldehyde Dichloromethane [80]
  2-Phenylethanol Dichloromethane [79, 80]
  2-Propanone — [77]
  2-Undecenal Hexane and ethanol [83]
  3,3-Dimethyl-hexane — [71]
  3,3-Dimethyl-octane — [71]
  3,4-Dimethylbenzoic acid — [71]
  3,5-Octadienone Hexane and ethanol [83]
  3,7-Dimethyl-1-octene — [77]
  3-Ethyl-4-heptanol — [77]
  3-Hydroxy-2-butanone — [79]
  3-Methyl-1-hexanol — [77]
  3-Methyl-1-penten-3-ol — [84]
  3-Methyl-3-vinyl-1-cyclopropene — [84]
  3-Methyl butyl butanoate — [77]
  3-Octenol — [77]
  3-Oxo-7,8-dihydro-α-ionol Dichloromethane [80]
  3-Phenyl propanol — [77]
  4-Hydroxy butyl acrylate Hexane and ethanol [83]
  4-Isopropyl-1-methyl-2-cyclohexen-1-ol — [77]
  4-Methyl-1-pentanol — [77]
  4-Nonanone — [77]
  4-Octanol — [77]
  4-Propyl guaiacol Hexane and ethanol [83]
  4-Terpineol — [77]
  4-Vinylguaiacol — [79]
  4-Vinylphenol — [79]
  4-Vinylsyringol — [79]
  4β-Hydroxywithanolide E Hexane and ethanol [83]
  5,6-Epoxy-β-carotene — [72]
  5,8-Epoxy-α-carotene — [72]
  6-Methyl-2-heptanone — [77]
  6-Methyl-5-heptene-2-one — [84]
  6-Methyl-hept-5-en-2-ol — [77]
  9-(Z)-Octadecenoic acid — [79]
  Acetaldehyde — [77]
  Acetic acid — [79]
  Allyl caproate Hexane and ethanol [83]
  Apigenin Ethanol or water [85]
  Apigenin 7 glucose Ethyl acetate [73]
  Benzaldehyde — [77, 84]
  Benzoic acid Ethanol/ethyl acetate, ethanol, or water [72, 85]
  Benzyl acetate Hexane and ethanol [83]
  Benzyl alcohol — [77, 79, 84]
  Betulin Juice [78]
  Butanal — [77]
  Butane-2,3-dione — [77]
  Butanoic acid — [77, 79]
  Butanol — [77, 79]
  Butanol-2-methyl Hexane and ethanol [83]
  Butyl 3-hydroxybutyrate — [84]
  Butyl acetate Crude oil [77, 84]
  Butyl butanoate — [77]
  Butyl decanoate — [77]
  Butyl dodecanoate — [77]
  Butyl octanoate — [77]
  Butyl-3-hydroxybutanoate — [77, 79]
  Caffeic acid Methanol, ethanol/ethyl acetate [78]
  Caffeine Ethanol or water [85]
  Campesterol Dichloromethane [86]
  Camphene — [77]
  Capric acid, methyl ester — [84]
  Carvacrol — [77]
  Caryophyllene oxide — [84]
  Catechin Ethanol and isopropanol [87]
  Catechol Ethanol or water [85]
  Cedr-8-en-9-alpha-ol acetate Hexane and ethanol [83]
  Cedrenol Hexane and ethanol [83]
  Chlorophyll a Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  Chlorophyll b Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  Chlorophyll b derivative 1 Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  Chlorophyll b derivative 2 Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  Cinnamic acid -/ethanol or water [72, 85]
  cis-3-Hexenol — [77]
  cis-Myrtanol — [77]
  cis-Piperitone oxide — [77]
  cis-p-Mentha-1(7),8-dien-2-ol — [77]
  cis-Verbenol — [77]
  Citronellyl acetate Hexane and ethanol [83]
  Cyclooctatetraene — [77]
  Cyclosativene Hexane and ethanol [83]
  Cymenene — [77]
  Decanal — [77]
  Decanoic acid Juice, crude oil [77, 79, 81, 82]
  Dehydrosabinene — [77]
  Diethyl ester — [71]
  Diethylene glycol Methanol [88]
  Dihomo-γ-linolenic acid Crude oil [81]
  Dihydroactinidiolide — [77]
  Dihydrocarveol Hexane and ethanol [83]
  Dimethylvinylcarbinol — [77]
  Docosane — [77]
  Docosanoic acid — [89]
  Dodecane — [84]
  Dodecanoic acid, methyl ester — [84]
  Eicosamethylcyclodecasiloxane — [71]
  Eicosanoic acid Crude oil [81, 82]
  Eicosenoic acid Crude oil [81, 82]
  Endo-borneol — [77]
  Epicatechin Ethanol and isopropanol [87]
  Erucic acid Crude oil [81, 82]
  Ergosterol Crude oil [81, 82]
  Ethanol — [77]
  Ethyl 2-methyl propanoate Dichloromethane [80]
  Ethyl acetate — [77]
  Ethyl benzoate Juice [78]
  Ethyl butanoate Dichloromethane [77, 80]
  Ethyl caprate — [84]
  Ethyl caproate — [84]
  Ethyl decanoate — [77]
  Ethyl dodecanoate — [77, 84]
  Ethyl hexanoate Dichloromethane [77, 80]
  Ethyl hexanol — [77]
  Ethyl hydroxyl hexanoate — [84]
  Ethyl octanoate Dichloromethane, hexane, and ethanol [77, 80, 83]
  Ethyl pentanoate — [77]
  Ethyl-2-butenoate — [77]
  Ethyl-3-hydroxybutanoate — [79]
  Ethyl-3-hydroxyhexanoate — [79]
  Ethyl-3-hydroxyoctanoate — [79]
  Ethyl-5-hydroxyoctanoate — [79]
  Eucalyptol Hexane and ethanol [77, 83]
  Farnesol — [77]
  Fenchol — [77]
  Ferulic acid Methanol, ethanol/ethyl acetate [78, 88]
  Furaneol Dichloromethane [80]
  Gallic acid Ethanol and isopropanol, ethanol, or water [85, 87]
  Geranaldehyde — [77]
  Geraniol — [77]
  Geranoic acid — [79]
  Geranyl acetone — [77]
  Guaiacol — [79]
  Heptan-2-ol — [77]
  Heptanal — [77]
  Heptanol — [77]
  Hexadecanoic acid Crude oil, dichloromethane [72, 76, 77]
  Hexadecanoic acid ester Hexane and ethanol [83]
  Hexanal Crude oil, dichloromethane [77, 80, 84]
  Hexanoic acid — [77, 79]
  Hexanol — [77, 79]
  Hexyl butanoate — [77]
  Hexyl ethanoate — [77]
  Hexyl octanoate — [77]
  Homofuraneol Hexane and ethanol [83]
  Hydrocinnamic alcohol — [77]
  Isoamyl octanoate — [77]
  Isobutyl acetate — [77]
  Isobutyl alcohol — [77]
  Isobutyl butanoate — [77]
  Isobutyl decanoate — [77]
  Isobutyl dodecanoate — [77]
  Isobutyl octanoate — [77]
  Isoeugenol Hexane and ethanol [83]
  Isophorone — [77]
  Isopropenyl ethyl ketone — [77]
  Isopulegol — [77]
  Kaempferol Ethanol/ethyl acetate, ethanol, or water [78, 85]
  Kaempferol 3-O-rutinoside Juice [78]
  Lanosterol Crude oil [81, 82]
  Limonene Ethanol/ethyl acetate [74, 77]
  Linalool — [77, 84]
  Linalool oxide — [77]
  Linoleic acid Crude oil [81, 82]
  Lucenin-2 Juice [78]
  Lutein ester   [72]
  Methional Dichloromethane [80]
  Methyl acetate — [77]
  Methyl benzoate — [84]
  Methyl butanoate Hexane and ethanol [77, 83]
  Methyl butene Hexane and ethanol [83]
  Methyl decanoate — [77]
  Methyl heptenone — [77]
  Methyl hexanoate — [77]
  Methyl octanoate — [77]
  Methyl salicylate — [77, 79]
  Methyl ß-methylcrotonate — [84]
  Methyl-11-cyclopentylundecanoate — [77]
  Methyl-2-methoxyoct-2-enoate — [84]
  Methyl-3-hydroxybutanoate — [79]
  Myrcenol — [77]
  Neric acid — [77]
  Naringenin Ethanol or water [85]
  Nervonic acid Crude oil [81, 82]
  Neryl acetate Hexane and ethanol [83]
  Nonanal — [77]
  Nonanoic acid — [77]
  Nonanol Hexane and ethanol [83]
  Nopol — [77]
  O-Coumaric acid Ethanol or water [85]
  Oct-1-en-3-ol Dichloromethane [80]
  Octadecanoic acid Crude oil [81, 82]
  Octanal -/Dichloromethane [77, 80]
  Octanoic acid — [77, 79]
  Octanoic acid, 3-methylbutyl ester — [84]
  Octanol — [77]
  Oleic acid Crude oil [81, 82]
  Palmitoleic acid Crude oil [81, 82]
  p-Anisaldehyde Hexane and ethanol [83]
  p-Cymen-8-ol — [77]
  p-Cymene — [77]
  Pentyl alcohol — [84]
  Phenethyl alcohol — [77]
  Phenol — [79]
  Phenyl ethyl benzoate Hexane and ethanol [83]
  Phenylethyl acetate — [77]
  Pheophytin b Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  p-Hydroxy benzoic acid Ethanol or water [85]
  Phytoene Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  Phytofluene Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  p-Menth-4(8)-ene-1,2-diol — [79]
  Propyl decanoate — [77]
  Propyl hexanoate Hexane and ethanol [83]
  Propyl octanoate — [77]
  Quercetin 3,4′,7-trimethyl ether Juice [78]
  Rosoxide — [77]
  Salicylic acid Ethanol or water [85]
  sec-Butyl butyrate — [77]
  Stigmasterol Dichloromethane [86]
  Syringic acid Ethanol or water [85]
  Terpinen-4-ol — [84]
  Terpinolene — [84]
  Tetradecanoic acid Crude oil [81, 82]
  Tetracosanoic acid Crude oil [81, 82]
  trans-3-Hexenol — [77]
  trans-Citral — [77]
  Trimethyl phenyl butenone Hexane and ethanol [83]
  Vanillic acid Ethanol/Ethyl acetate, ethanol, or water [74, 85]
  Vanillin Ethanol/Ethyl acetate, ethanol, or water [74, 85]
  Verbenene Hexane and ethanol [77, 83]
  Verbenone — [77]
  Vitamin B9 (folic acid) Juice [78]
  Vitamin E Crude oil, dichloromethane [81, 86]
  Vitamin K1 Crude oil [81]
  α-Cubebene Juice [78]
  α-Linolenic acid Crude oil [76, 77]
  α-Pinene Hexane and ethanol [77, 83]
  α-Terpinene — [77]
  α-Terpineol — [77, 79, 84]
  α-Terpinolene — [77]
  α-Tocopherol Crude oil, ethanol/ethyl acetate [74, 81, 82]
  β-Bisabolol Juice [78]
  β-Carotene Crude oil [81, 82]
  β-Citronellol — [77]
  β-Cyclocitral — [77]
  β-Ionone — [77]
  β-Ionone-5,6-epoxide — [77]
  β-Linalool Dichloromethane [80]
  β-Myrcene — [77]
  β-Sitosterol Crude oil [81, 82]
  β-Tocopherol Crude oil [81, 82]
  β-trans-Ocimene — [77]
  γ-Butyl-γ-butyrolactone — [84]
  γ-Caprolactone — [84]
  γ-Ethylbutyrolactone — [77]
  γ-Linoleic acid Crude oil [81, 82]
  γ-Octalactone Hexane and ethanol [79, 83]
  γ-Terpinene — [77, 84]
  γ-Tocopherol — [82]
  γ-Undecalactone — [77]
  δ-Muurolene Hexane and ethanol [83]
  δ-Octalactone — [77, 79]
Leaves (S)-4-Iodo-1,2-epoxybutane — [71]
1,1,1,5,7,7,7-Heptamethyl-3,3 — [71]
1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid — [71]
3,3-Dimethyl-hexane — [71]
3,3-Dimethyl-octane — [71]
Campesterol Dichloromethane [86]
Diethyl ester — [71]
Docosane — [77]
Eicosamethylcyclodecasiloxane — [71]
Ethyl isoallocholate Dichloromethane [86]
Hexadecanoic acid Dichloromethane [86]
Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone Dichloromethane [86]
Linoleic acid Dichloromethane [86]
Perulactone B — [90]
Physalin B — [90]
Physalin D — [90]
Physalin F — [90]
Phytol Methanol, dichloromethane [81, 86]
Stigmasterol Dichloromethane [86]
Vitamin E Dichloromethane [86]
Withanolide E — [90]
Withanolide F — [90]
Peel (all-E)-Antheraxanthin myristate-palmitate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Lutein Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Lutein 3′-O-palmitate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Lutein 3-O-myristate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Lutein 3-O-palmitate-3′-O-myristate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Lutein dimyristate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Lutein dipalmitate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Neoxanthin Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Neoxanthin dipalmitate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Neoxanthin myristate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Neoxanthin palmitate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Taraxanthin Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Taraxanthin ester Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Violaxanthin Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Violaxanthin dimyristate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Violaxanthin dipalmitate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Violaxanthin myristate-palmitate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Zeaxanthin dimyristate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Zeaxanthin dipalmitate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Zeaxanthin myristate-palmitate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-Zeinoxanthin Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-α-Carotene Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-α-Cryptoxanthin Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-α-Cryptoxanthin myristate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(all-E)-α-Cryptoxanthin palmitate    
    Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(E)-α-Carotene Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(Z)-Lutein 1 Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(Z)-Lutein ester Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(Z)-Neoxanthin- or (Z)-violaxanthin ester Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(Z)-Taraxanthin Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(Z)-β-Carotene Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
(Z)-γ-Carotene Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
5,6-Epoxy-β-carotene Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
5,8-Epoxy-α-carotene Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
Lutein ester Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
Phytoene Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
Phytofluene Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
Pulp (all-E)-Lutein Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (all-E)-Lutein 3-O-myristate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (all-E)-Lutein 3-O-palmitate-3′-O-myristate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (all-E)-Lutein dimyristate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (all-E)-Lutein dipalmitate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (all-E)-Neoxanthin Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (all-E)-Neoxanthin dipalmitate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (all-E)-Neoxanthin myristate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (all-E)-Taraxanthin Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (all-E)-Taraxanthin ester Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (all-E)-Violaxanthin Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (all-E)-Violaxanthin dimyristate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (all-E)-Violaxanthin dipalmitate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (all-E)-Violaxanthin myristate-palmitate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (all-E)-Zeinoxanthin Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (all-E)-α-Carotene Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (all-E)-α-Cryptoxanthin Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (all-E)-α-Cryptoxanthin myristate Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (E)-α-Carotene Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (Z)-Lutein 1 Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (Z)-Lutein ester Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (Z)-β-Carotene Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  (Z)-γ-Carotene Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  ∆5-Avenasterol Crude oil [81, 82]
  ∆7-Avenasterol Crude oil [81, 82]
  5,6-Epoxy-β-carotene Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  5,8-Epoxy-α-carotene Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  Campesterol Crude oil [81, 82]
  Decanoic acid Crude oil [81, 82]
  Eicosanoic acid Crude oil [81, 82]
  Eicosenoic acid Crude oil [81, 82]
  Erucic acid Crude oil [81, 82]
  Ergosterol Crude oil [81, 82]
  Hexadecanoic acid Crude oil [81, 82]
  Homo-γ-linolenic acid — [82]
  Lanosterol Crude oil [81, 82]
  Linoleic acid Crude oil [81, 82]
  Lutein ester Hexane/acetone/ethanol [72]
  Nervonic acid Crude oil [81, 82]
  Octadecanoic acid Crude oil [81, 82]
  Oleic acid Crude oil [81, 82]
  Palmitoleic acid Crude oil [81, 82]
  Phytoene Crude oil [81,82]
  Phytofluene Crude oil [81,82]
  Stigmasterol Crude oil [81, 82]
  Tetradecanoic acid Crude oil [81, 82]
  Tetracosanoic acid Crude oil [81, 82]
  α-Linolenic acid Crude oil [81, 82]
  α-Tocopherol Crude oil [81, 82]
  β-Carotene Crude oil [81, 82]
  β-Sitosterol Crude oil [81, 82]
  β-Tocopherol Crude oil [81, 82]
  γ-Linolenic acid Crude oil [81, 82]
  γ-Tocopherol — [82]
  δ-Tocopherol Ethanol/ethyl acetate [78]
Roots (S)-4-Iodo-1,2-epoxybutane — [71]
1,1,1,5,7,7,7-Heptamethyl-3,3 bis(trimethylsiloxy) tetrasiloxane — [71]
1,2,3-Tri(t-butyl)cyclopropenylium tribromide — [71]
1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid — [71]
3,3-Dimethyl-hexane — [71]
3,3-Dimethyl-octane — [71]
3α-Tigloylnxytropane Ethanol [69]
3β-Acetoxytropane Ethanol [69]
Cuscohygrine Ethanol [69]
Diethyl ester — [71]
Dimethyl-flubendazole    
Docosane — [71]
Eicosamethylcyclodecasiloxane — [71]
Hygrine Ethanol [69]
N-Methylpyrrolidinylhygrine A Ethanol [69]
N-Methylpyrrolidinylhygrine B Ethanol [69]
Physoperuvine Ethanol [69]
Tropine Ethanol [69]
Dimethyl-flubendazole — [71]
Seeds (S)-4-Iodo-1,2-epoxybutane — [71]
1,1,1,5,7,7,7-Heptamethyl-3,3 bis(trimethylsiloxy)tetrasiloxane — [71]
1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid — [71]
3,3-Dimethyl-hexane — [71]
3,3-Dimethyl-octane — [71]
1,2,3-Tri(t-butyl) cyclopropenylium tribromide Methanol [88]
Caffeic acid Methanol [88]
Diethyl ester — [71]
Diethylene glycol Methanol [88]
Docosane — [77]
Eicosamethyl cyclodecasiloxane — [71]
Octadecanoic acid Methanol [88]
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Different parts of P. peruviana contain terpenes, and polyphenols represent the main two classes of identified phytoconstituents. They represent 26.09% and 14.94%, respectively. In the terpenes category, carotenoids are the most representative (11.15%), followed by monoterpenes (8.76%), sesquiterpenes (5.57%), and diterpenes (3.18%). A considerable amount of sesquiterpenes (22.3%) and fatty acids (22.8%) has been found in P. angulata, a Physalis species close to P. peruviana, as volatile components of leaf essential oil [91]. However, phytol (17.88%) was the most diterpenes found in ethanolic extracts of leaves, roots, and fruits of P. minima, beyond other phytoconstituents, including fatty acids [92]. According to our results, phytol was identified right now, only in calyces and leaves of P. peruviana.

The presence of phytoene can justify the richness of the plant in carotenoids. Therefore, phytoene is an alkene hydrocarbon with 40 carbon atoms intermediate in the biosynthesis of carotenoids. The synthesis of phytoene is necessary for that of carotenoids in plants. The biosynthetic pathway from phytoene to violaxanthin is common to the genus Physalis [70]. Furthermore, carotenoid pigments from different species of the Physalis genus are primarily used in the food industry as food dyes for fats and oils. Their seeds can contain up to 30% fatty oil [93]. The presence of carotenoids in the Physalis genus has been confirmed by Ramadan [94]. All-trans-β-carotene, 9-cis-β-carotene, and all-trans-α-cryptoxanthin were the primary carotenoids found in the fruits.

Referring to phenolic compounds, flavonoids are the most phytoconstituents found (5.17%) in the plant than cinnamic acid derivatives (3.98%), monophenolic compounds (1.79%), phenolic acids (1.39%), coumarins (0.79%), phenolic esters (0.79%), chalcones (0.39%), phenolic aldehydes (0.39%), and stilbenes (0.19%). Similarly, phenolic, flavonoid, and phenolic acid contents were identified and quantified in different parts of five members of the Physalis genus including P. angulate, P. patula, P. subulata, P. solanacea, and P. hederifolia. However, quercetin, kaempferol, and phenolic acids were identified as the major phenolic phytoconstituents in those five plant species, in different concentrations according to organs [95]. Overall, monophenolic and polyphenolic compounds are synthesized and then accumulated in all plant tissues, but their concentration can be varied from different parts. Among phenolic compounds, phenolic acids and flavonoids are the most studied, mainly pharmacological properties exploited for medical purposes [96]. Gupta et al. [97] noted the strong influence of phenolic compounds and the carotenoid content with bioactivity.

The plant also contains fatty acids, which are the most cited in the literature. For example, hexadecanoic acid (palmitic acid) was the most cited, five times (0.82%), followed by decanoic acid, linoleic acid, and octadecanoic acid, which were mentioned four times (0.66%). Hexadecanoic acid (palmitic acid) is the most common saturated fatty acid in plants, animals, and microorganisms, and linoleic acid is central in plant lipids. It is essential for humans (animals) because it is derived mainly from dietary plant oils [98].

Beyond the sucrose esters identified in plants (2.58%), others such as peruvioses A, B, C, D, and F had already been isolated before in the dichloromethane extract of the sticky exudate that covers the fruit [99, 100]. Nicandroses, other sucrose esters, have been isolated in the Physalis genus. Their presence is confirmed in different species including P. nicandroides var. attenuata, P. solanaceus, P. sordida, and P. viscosa [5].

Steroids and withanolides (a group of naturally occurring polyoxygenated steroidal lactones) were also identified in the plant and represented 6.97%. Physalins (steroidal constituents) are the most active representatives of secondary metabolites of the genus [101]. Most withanolide compounds are produced by Solanaceae plants, in particular 19 genera of Solanaceae, including Acnistus, Datura, Deprea, Dunalis, Discopodium, Exodeconus, Hyoscyamus, Iochroma, Jaborosa, Larnax, Lycium, Nicandra, Physalis, Salpichroa, Trechonaetes, Tubocapsicum, Vassobia, Withania, and Witheringia [102, 103]. Nowadays, several withanolides have been isolated and characterized from different parts of P. peruviana, including dihydrowithaferins, physachenolides, physacoztolides, perulactones, withaperuvins, alkekenginins, withaferins, hydroxy-withanolides, physagulins, withaperuvins, physalolactones, withalongolide, physapubescins, withaphysanolides, viscosalactones, and phyperunolides [5, 8]. Almost 351 withanolides have been identified and isolated from the Physalis genus, mainly from P. peruviana and P. angulata [104].

Steroids such as ergosterol, campesterol, stigmasterol, lanosterol, ß-sitosterol, Δ5-avenasterol, and Δ7-avenasterol have been reported in P. peruviana pomace and fruit juice. A number of the vitamins have been identified primarily in pomace and fruits, including 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D2 (derived from vitamin D), vitamin B9 (folic acid), vitamin K, vitamin E (α,β,γ,δ-tocopherols), and biotin. A study on the phytochemical composition of goldenberry pomace confirmed the presence of those vitamins. In addition to vitamins A, D, and K, niacin, riboflavin, thiamin, pyridoxine, vitamin B12, choline chloride, and p-aminobenzoic acid have been identified and quantified [105, 106].

Among ten alkaloids identified in the plant, cuscohygrine was subsequently isolated from the roots [107], and physoperuvine has already been isolated from P. peruviana roots [108]. The other alkaloids have been explicitly isolated in the aerial and roots. They are the only parts of plants where alkaloids were identified.

4. Conclusion

P. peruviana plays a significant role in managing various pathologies of different organ systems, but its ethnotherapeutic use is strongly limited to a few countries. The plant is very rich in compounds, considering the number of identified compounds. Regarding phytochemical profiling, effort must be directed towards isolating and characterizing more compounds, particularly those that can present a significant therapeutic interest via extensive pharmacological investigations.

5. Disclosure

This study is part of the Ph.D. training of FMK. The funding agent had no role in the study design, data collection, data analysis, and writing of the present manuscript.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the Pharm-Biotechnology and Traditional Medicine Center of Excellence (PHARMBIOTRAC) and Mbarara University of Science and Technology (MUST) for their support during the work. The authors are also grateful to The World Academic of Sciences (TWAS) for providing research scholarship to FMK. The World Bank funds the training through Pharm-Bio Technology and Traditional Center (PHARMBIOTRAC)/Africa Centre of Excellence, Mbarara University of Science and Technology.

Data Availability

All relevant data are presented in the manuscript. However, any required further information can be provided by the corresponding author upon request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

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