Table 3.
Some reported changes in wine volatile compounds using different dealcoholization processes.
| Dealcoholization Process | Wine Type | Membrane | Operating Mode/Conditions | Alcohol Reduction | Volatile Composition | Sampling and Analytical Method | Reference | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Co (% v/v) | Cf (% v/v) | Volatile Compounds | Estimated Average Losses (%) | ||||||
| NF | White model wine | TORAY–UB70 | Batch retentate–recycling mode T = 15 P = 10 |
12.0 | 8.4 | Diethyl succinate 2–phenyl–ethanol cis–3–hexenol Isovaleric acid |
2.4 2.9 12.6 11.7 |
HS/SPME–GC/MS | [140] |
| Red Wine | Polyamide, NF9, Alfa Laval |
T = 30 P = 16 |
12.0 | 9.1 | Total volatile aroma** | 30.0 | GC–FID | [33] | |
| RO | Model wine | Osmonics–SE | Batch retentate–recycling mode T = 15 P = 17–29 |
12.0 | 8.4 | Diethyl succinate 2–phenyl–ethanol cis–3–hexenol Isovaleric acid |
0.6–1.6 2.5–3.5 7.8–11 11.9–18.1 |
HS/SPME–GC/MS | [140] |
| Red Wine | Cellulose acetate, CA995PE | T = 30◦C P = 16 |
12.0 | 8.4 | Total aroma** | 90.0 | GC–FID | [33] | |
| Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | RO membrane (100 DA) | T = 10 P = ns Time = 40 |
13.2 | 9.0 | Alcohols Acids Esters Phenols Lactones |
30.0 22.0 8.0 13.0 14.0 |
SPME–GC/MS | [146] | |
| OD/EP | Model wine | Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) Memcor |
Qf = 0.053 Qs = 0.093 T = 30 Time = 60 |
13.0 | 8.1 | Isoamyl alcohol Ethyl acetate |
44.0 70.0 |
GC–FID | [190] |
| Falanghina white wine | Liqui–Cel 0.5 × 1, PP hollow fiber | Qf = 0.07 Qs = 0.14 T = 10 Time = 240 |
12.5 | 9.8–0.3 | Higher alcohols Acids Esters Ketones lactones |
49.5–98.9 60.5–98.7 71.5–99.0 67.1–99.9 73.6–98.2 |
LE–GC/MS, LE–GC/FID | [36] | |
| Xarelo white wine | Liqui–Cel ExtraFlow | Qf = 10 Qs = 10 T = room temperature Time = 20 |
11.5 | 10.1 | Isoamyl acetate Ethyl hexanoate Ethyl octanoate Ethyl decanoate |
27.0 37.0 28.0 24.0 |
SBSE–GC/MS | [148] | |
| Soave white wine | PTFE hollow fiber (Teflon, Verona, Italy) | Qf = 0.2 Qs = 0.2 T = 20 Time = ns |
ns | * | Alcohols Acids Esters Terpenes |
12.6–32.2 5.6–16.4 34.0–58.4 22.0–26.0 |
SPE–GC/MS | [196] | |
| Verdicchio white wine | PTFE hollow fiber (Teflon, Verona, Italy) | Qf = 0.2 Qs = 0.2 T = 20 Time = ns |
ns | * | Alcohols Acids Esters Terpenes |
8.9–25.8 8.0–15.8 40.0–54.1 21.0–28.0 |
SPE–GC/MS | [196] | |
| Aglianico red wine | Liqui–Cel Extra–flow, PP hollow fiber |
Qf = 0.583 Qs = 0.183 T = 20 Time = 283 |
13.8 | 11.6–8.8 | Alcohols Esters Acids Terpenes Others: Benzaldehyde 𝛾–Butyrolactone |
8.4–31.8 42.9–60.9 12.5–17.1 13.8–32.3 55.3–65.9 4.5–13.6 |
SPE–GC/MS | [32] | |
| Aglianico red wine | Liqui–Cel Extra–flow, PP hollow fiber | Qf = 0.583 Qs = 0.183 T = 20 Time = 283 |
15.5 | 13.5–10.8 | Alcohols Esters Acids Terpenes Others: Benzaldehyde 𝛾–Butyrolactone Vitispirane |
9.2–13.7 33.8–50.6 11–18.5 3.6–14.5 nf 12.9 Unc |
SPE–GC/MS | [32] | |
| Aglianico red wine | Liqui–Cel 0.5×1, PP hollow fiber |
Qf = 0.07 Qs = 0.14 T = 20 Time = 255 |
13.0 | 6.5–0.2 | Alcohols Acids Esters Sulfur compounds Phenols Ketones and lactones Aldehydes |
57.9–99.9 23.6–78.9 12.8–89.9 2.1–78.7 66.7–100 23.6–97.9 unc–100 |
LE–GC/MS, LE–GC/FID | [151] | |
| Merlot red wine | Liqui–Cel Extra–flow, PP hollow fiber | Qf = 5.8 Qs = 8.1 T = 20 Time = 60 |
13.4 | 11.3 | Ethyl acetate Isoamyl acetate Isoamyl alcohol Ethyl hexanoate Ethyl octanoate Linalool 2–Phenylethyl acetate |
37.4 34.9 13.7 33.0 67.8 14.5 13.6 |
HS/SPME–GC/MS | [147] | |
| Barbera red wine | Polypropylene hollow fibers (JU.CLA.S. LTD, Verona, Italy) | Qf = 1.6 Qs = 0.8 T = 10 Time = 360 |
14.6 | 5.0 | Alcohols Acids Esters |
63.9 17.4 23.8 |
SPE–GC/FID | [160] | |
| Tempranillo red wine | Liqui–Cel ExtraFlow | Qf = 5.8 Qs = 5.8 T = room temperature Time = 60 |
13.3 | 9.0 | Isoamyl alcohol Ethyl hexanoate |
21.0 20.0 |
SBSE–GC/MS | [148] | |
| Garnacha red wine | Liqui–Cel ExtraFlow | Qf = 5 Qs = 5 T = room temperature Time = 60 |
13.9 | 9.3 | Isoamyl acetate Ethyl hexanoate |
24.0 36.0 |
SBSE–GC/MS | [148] | |
| Verduno Pelaverga red wine | Polypropylene hollow fibers (JU.CLA.S. LTD, Verona, Italy) | Qf = 1.6 Qs = 0.8 T = 10 Time = 360 |
14.6 | 5.0 | Alcohols Acids Esters |
59.9 23.6 45.2 |
SPE–GC/FID | [160] | |
| Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | Liqui–Cel 0.5×1, PP hollow fiber | Recycling mode Qf = 1.5 Qs = 0.5 T = 10 Time = 240 |
13.2 | 8.3–2.7 | Alcohols Acids Esters Lactones Phenols Others: Benzaldehyde α–Terpineol |
56.0–84.0 18.0–23.0 64.0–85.0 11.0–37.0 11.0–37.0 2.0–26.0 5.0–49.0 |
SPE– LE–GC/MS/FID | [35] | |
| Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | Liqui–Cel mini module 1.7x5.5 Membrana |
Recycling mode Qf = 1.5 Qs = 0.5 T = 10 Time = 120 |
13.2 | 8.3–5.4 | Alcohols Acids Esters Phenols Lactones |
2.0–3.0 18.0–25.0 15.0–19.0 5.0–10.0 7.0–25.0 |
SPME–GC/MS | [146] | |
| Langhe Rosè wine | Polypropylene hollow fibers (JU.CLA.S. LTD, Verona, Italy) | Qf = 1.6 Qs = 0.8 T = 10 Time = 360 |
13.2 | 5.0 | Alcohols Acids Esters |
60.4 30.9 47.8 |
SPE–GC/FID | [160] | |
| PV | Tokaji Hárslevelű white wine | PERVAP.Sulzer 1060 PDMS | ‘‘Carrier gas mode’’ under atmospheric pressure T = 40–70 |
13.1 | 0.1 | Total volatile aroma** | 70.0 | Distillation/LE–GC/MS | [29] |
| Cabernet Sauvignon red wine | PDMS JS–WSM–8040 (JiuSi High–Tech, Nanjing, China) | Batch operation T = 45 VP = 0.05 |
12.5 | 0.5 | Alcohols Acids Esters |
19.7–39.5 12.7–28.2 48.0–99.9 |
GC/MS | [210] | |
| VD | Barbera red wine | – | T = 15 | 15.2 | 5.0 | Alcohols Acids Esters |
50.4 13.7 19.8 |
SPE–GC/FID | [160] |
| Verduno Pelaverga red wine | – |
T = 15 |
14.6 | 5.0 | Alcohols Acids Esters |
53.6 2.3 19.5 |
SPE–GC/FID | [160] | |
| Langhe Rosè wine | – | T = 15 | 13.2 | 5.0 | Alcohols Acids Esters |
51.4 2.5 22.9 |
SPE–GC/FID | [160] | |
| SCC | White wine | – | T = 25 VP = 0.08 Time = 60 |
10.6 | 0.3 | Aliphatic alcohols Aromatic alcohols Acids Esters Ketones |
98.0 3.0 20.0 53.0 71.0 |
LE–GC/FID | [164] |
| Chardonnay white wine | – | T = 30 VP = 0.04 Time = 60 |
ns | ns | Total aroma** | 1.0–9.0 | HS/SPME–GC/MS | [162] | |
| Tempranillo red wine | – | T = 30 VP = 0.04 Time = 60 |
ns | ns | Total aroma** | 3.0–18.0 | HS/SPME–GC/MS | [162] | |
| Cabernet Sauvignon rose wine | – | T = 30 VP = 0.04 Time = 60 |
ns | ns | Total aroma** | 1.0–4.0 | HS/SPME–GC/MS | [162] | |
| RO-OD/EP | Shiraz red wine | Memstar AA MEM–074 and Liqui–Cel 2.5×8 Extra–flow PP hollow fiber |
Qf = ns Qs = ns T = ns P = ns Time = ns |
16.3 | 13.3–10.4 | Alcohols Esters Monoterpenes C13–Norisoprenoids Lactones Others: Dimethyl sulfide |
14.9–38.9 29.8–49.5 9.2–20.8 9.4–14.5 17.1–21.4 52.6–71.9 |
HS–SPME–GC/MS | [217] |
| Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | RO membrane (100 DA) and Liqui–cel mini module 1.7×5.5 Membrane |
Recycling mode Qf = 1.5 Qs = 0.5 T = 10 P = ns Time = 120 |
13.2 | 7.1–5.5 | Alcohols Acids Esters Phenols Lactones |
17.0–27.0 19.0–24.0 15.0–22.0 16.0–18.0 unc–14.0 |
SPME–GC/MS | [146] | |
| Barossa Valley Shiraz – Cabernet Sauvignon red wine | Spiral wound 4040 and hollow fiber perstractive membrane (VA Filtration, Nuriootpa, Australia) | Qf = ns Qs = ns T = 55 P = 30 Time = 90 |
14.1 | 12.5 | Alcohols Acids Esters |
15.5 10.0 5.1 |
SPME–GC/MS | [168] | |
| McLaren Vale Cabernet Sauvignon red wine | Spiral wound 4040 and hollow fiber perstractive membrane (VA Filtration, Nuriootpa, Australia) | Qf = ns Qs = ns T = 55 P = 30 Time = 90 |
17.1 | 14.5 | Alcohols Acids Esters |
13.6 6.1 18.8 |
SPME–GC/MS | [168] | |
| Adelaide Hills Shiraz red wine | Spiral wound 4040 and hollow fiber perstractive membrane (VA Filtration, Nuriootpa, Australia) | Qf = ns Qs = ns T = 55 P = 30 Time = 90 |
14.9 | 14.2 | Alcohols Acids Esters |
7.0 0.4 8.6 |
SPME–GC/MS | [168] | |
| Barossa Valley Shiraz red wine | Spiral wound 4040 and hollow fiber perstractive membrane (VA Filtration, Nuriootpa, Australia) | Qf = ns Qs = ns T = 55 P = 30 Time = 90 |
15.2 | 12.6 | Alcohols Acids Esters |
11.0 5.6 21.2 |
SPME–GC/MS | [168] | |
| McLaren Vale Shiraz red wine | Spiral wound 4040 and hollow fiber perstractive membrane | Qf = ns Qs = ns T = 55 P = 30 Time = 90 |
14.7 | 12.3 | Alcohols Acids Esters |
7.1 2.5 9.7 |
SPME–GC/MS | [168] | |
| Cabernet Sauvignon red wine A | Spiral wound 4040 and hollow fiber perstractive membrane (VA Filtration, Nuriootpa, Australia) | Qf = ns Qs = ns T = 55 P = 30 Time = 90 |
17.0 | 14.5 | Alcohols Acids Esters |
8.2 15.9 17.4 |
[169] | ||
| Cabernet Sauvignon red wine B | Spiral wound 4040 and hollow fiber perstractive membrane (VA Filtration, Nuriootpa, Australia) | Qf = ns Qs = ns T = 55 P = 30 Time = 90 |
15.5 | 13.3 | Alcohols Acids |
3.8 12.0 |
[169] | ||
| Cabernet Sauvignon red wine C | Spiral wound 4040 and hollow fiber perstractive membrane (VA Filtration, Nuriootpa, Australia) | Qf = ns Qs = ns T = 55 P = 30 Time = 90 |
14.9 | 13.3 | Alcohols | 16.4 | [169] | ||
| Cabernet Sauvignon red wine D | Spiral wound 4040 and hollow fiber perstractive membrane (VA Filtration, Nuriootpa, Australia) | Qf = ns Qs = ns T = 55 P = 30 Time = 90 |
14.5 | 13.2 | Alcohols Acids Esters |
7.1 4.7 76.5 |
[169] | ||
Co = original alcohol content; Cf = final alcohol content; T = temperature; P = pressure; VP = vacuum pressure; PP = polypropylene; ns = not specified; Verdicchio white wine 1 = sample 1 of 3; Cabernet Sauvignon red wine A = sample 1 of 5; OD = osmotic distillation; EP = evaporative perstraction; SCC = spinning cone column; NF = nanofiltration; RO = reverse osmosis; PV = pervaporation; PDMS = polydimethylsiloxane; unc = unchanged; nf = not found; *ethanol content removal between 2% and 4% v/v; **no values of the individual volatile aroma compound losses were provided; SPE = solid phase extraction; GC = gas chromatography; MS = mass spectrometry; LE = liquid extraction; FID = flame ionization detector; SBSE = stir bar sorptive extraction; HS = headspace; SPME = solid phase micro extraction; – means not applicable. Units: Concentration = (%v/v); Vacuum pressure/Pressure = bar; Rejection = %; T = °C; Flowrate = L/min; Time = min.