Table 4.
Summary of the main results of some studies on the sensory changes caused by the removal of ethanol from wine by various dealcoholization processes.
| Dealcoholization Process | Wine Type | Membrane | Operating Mode/Conditions | Alcohol Reduction | Findings on Sensory Characteristics | Reference | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Co (% v/v) | Cf (% v/v) | ||||||
| NF | Red Wine | Polyamide, NF97, NF99 HF Alfa Laval |
T = 30 P = 16 |
12.0 | 9.1 | Increase in astringency and unbalanced aroma and taste due to alcohol reduction | [33] |
| RO | Syrah red wine | ns | T = ns P = ns |
12.7 | 11.1–9.6 | Decrease in wine length in the mouth and increase in red fruits and then woody and blackcurrant perceptions (using TDS and attributed to alcohol reduction). Decrease in heat and sweetness intensity (attributed to alcohol reduction) and red fruit intensity (attributed to RO) | [189] |
| Merlot red wine | ns | T = ns P = ns |
13.4 | 11.8–10.2 | Decrease om wine length in the mouth and increase in astringent and then of fruity perceptions (using TDS and attributed to alcohol reduction). Decrease in heat and texture intensity (attributed to alcohol reduction) and increase in acid intensity (attributed to RO) | [189] | |
| Syrah red wine | ns | T = ns P = ns |
13.4 | 11.4–7.9 | Decrease in persistence, complexity, number of aromas and increase in balance, harmony, and familiarity. Decrease in familiarity and harmony after 4% v/v reduction | [244] | |
| OD/EP | white wine | PTFE hollow fiber (Teflon, Verona, Italy) | Qf = 0.2 Qs = 0.2 T = 20 Time = ns |
ns | * | Floral, fruity, and vegetable notes, as well as acidity, saltiness, and bitterness, were not significantly influenced. Decrease in wine body, persistence, and honey note. | [196] |
| Falanghina white wine | Liqui-Cel 0.5x1, PP hollow fiber | Qf = 0.07 Qs = 0.14 T = 10 Time = 240 |
12.5 | 9.8–0.3 | Decrease in odor, sweetness, and body, resulting in unbalanced taste and overall unacceptable, with an unpleasant aftertaste | [36] | |
| Aglianico red wine | Liqui-Cel Extra-flow, PP hollow fiber | Qf = 0.583 Qs = 0.183 T = 20 Time = 283 |
13.8 | 11.6–8.8 | Decrease in cherry, red fruits, and sweet notes. Increase in flowers notes only within 2% v/v reduction. Increase in grass and cooked notes and increase in astringency within 5% v/v reduction. Increase in bitterness and acid sensations within 3% v/v reduction | [32] | |
| Aglianico red wine | Liqui-Cel Extra-flow | Qf = ns Qs = ns T = ns Time = 180 |
12.8 | 4.9–0.4 | Decrease in sweet and solvent aroma series (due to alcohol reduction) which characterize the wine | [197] | |
| Aglianico red wine | Liqui-Cel Extra-flow, PP hollow fiber | Qf = 0.583 Qs = 0.183 T = 20 Time = 283 |
15.5 | 13.5–10.8 | Decrease in cherry, red fruits, flowers, and grass notes. Increase in acid and astringent sensations | [32] | |
| Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | Liqui-Cel 0.5×1, PP hollow fiber | Recycling mode Qf = 1.5 Qs = 0.5 T = 10 Time = 240 |
13.2 | 8.3–2.7 | Increase in acidity, a decrease in red fruits and spices notes, astringency, bitterness, and sweetness, resulting in lower acceptability | [35] | |
| PV | Cabernet Sauvignon red wine | PDMS JS-WSM-8040 (JiuSi High-Tech, Nanjing, China) | Batch operation T = 45 VP = 0.05 |
12.5 | 0.5 | High retention of fruit aroma, producing wine with better smell and taste | [210] |
| SCC | Chardonnay white wine | – | ns | 14.9 | 14.6–12.9 | Decrease in overall aroma intensity and hot mouthfeel sensation | [245] |
| RO-OD/EP | Shiraz red wine | Memstar AA MEM-074 and Liqui-Cel 2.5 × 8 Extra-flow PP hollow fiber |
Qf = ns Qs = ns T = ns P = ns Time = ns |
16.3 | 13.3–10.4 | Increase in dark fruit, raisin/prune, alcohol, and astringency in all dealcoholized wines with no significant effects. Increase in black pepper note and overall aroma intensity, and decrease in herbaceous note within 6% v/v reduction off alcohol | [217] |
| Cabernet Sauvignon red wine A | Spiral wound 4040 and hollow fiber perstractive membrane (VA Filtration, Nuriootpa, Australia) | Qf = ns Qs = ns T = 55 P = 30 Time = 90 |
17.0 | 14.5 | Increase in dark fruit aroma and decrease of green aroma, dried fruit, and chocolate flavors with no significant difference in the overall intensity. A small decrease in acidity. Small but significant decreases in sweetness and saltiness. Increase in the sensation of astringency | [169] | |
| Cabernet Sauvignon red wine B | Spiral wound 4040 and hollow fiber perstractive membrane (VA Filtration, Nuriootpa, Australia) | Qf = ns Qs = ns T = 55 P = 30 Time = 90 |
15.5 | 13.3 | Decreases in hotness, bitterness, and body (attributed to lower ethanol level). Decrease in confection and ‘chocolate’ aromas. Significant decrease in the overall flavor intensity (largely due to the decreased intensity of dark fruit, sweet spice, and chocolate flavors) with no significant effect on the overall intensity | [169] | |
| Cabernet Sauvignon red wine C | Spiral wound 4040 and hollow fiber perstractive membrane (VA Filtration, Nuriootpa, Australia) | Qf = ns Qs = ns T = 55 P = 30 Time = 90 |
14.9 | 13.3 | Decrease in hotness (attributed to lower ethanol level). Decrease in confection, dried fruit, and chocolate aromas with no significant difference in the overall intensity. Decrease in the sensation of astringency | [169] | |
| Cabernet Sauvignon red wine D | Spiral wound 4040 and hollow fiber perstractive membrane (VA Filtration, Nuriootpa, Australia) | Qf = ns Qs = ns T = 55 P = 30 Time = 90 |
14.5 | 13.2 | Decrease in hotness (attributed to lower ethanol level). Increase in red fruit aroma with no significant difference in the overall intensity | [169] | |
| Cabernet Sauvignon red wine E | Spiral wound 4040 and hollow fiber perstractive membrane (VA Filtration, Nuriootpa, Australia) | Qf = ns Qs = ns T = 55 P = 30 Time = 90 |
16.0 | 14.2 | Decrease in hotness (attributed to lower ethanol level). Decrease in overall flavor intensity with no significant difference in the overall intensity. Small but significant decreases in sweetness and saltiness | [169] | |
Co = original alcohol content; Cf = final alcohol content; T = temperature; P = pressure; VP = vacuum pressure; PP = polypropylene; ns = not specified; Cabernet Sauvignon red wine A = sample 1 of 5; OD = osmotic distillation; EP = evaporative perstraction; SCC = spinning cone column; NF = nanofiltration; RO = reverse osmosis; PV = pervaporation; PDMS = polydimethylsiloxane; unc = unchanged; *ethanol content removal between 2% and 4% v/v. Units: Concentration = (%v/v); Vacuum pressure/Pressure = bar; Rejection = %; T = °C; Flowrate = L/min; Time = min.