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. 2021 Oct 21;18(21):11075. doi: 10.3390/ijerph182111075

Risk of Aortic Aneurysm and Dissection in Patients with Tuberculosis: A Nationwide Population-Based Cohort Study

Ming-Tsung Chen 1, Chi-Hsiang Chung 2,3, Hung-Yen Ke 4, Chung-Kan Peng 1, Wu-Chien Chien 2,3,*, Chih-Hao Shen 1,*
Editor: Paul B Tchounwou
PMCID: PMC8583242  PMID: 34769592

Abstract

Tuberculosis (TB) can cause chronic inflammation. The occurrence of aortic aneurysm (AA) and aortic dissection (AD) may be associated with chronic inflammatory disease, but whether TB increases the risk of AA and AD remains to be determined. This study aimed to investigate the association between TB and the development of AA and AD. We conducted a population-based cohort study using data obtained from the Taiwan National Health Insurance Database. We selected 31,220 individuals with TB and 62,440 individuals without TB by matching the cohorts according to age, sex, and index year at a ratio of 1:2. Cox regression analysis revealed that the TB cohort had a 1.711-fold higher risk of AA and AD than the non-TB cohort after adjustment for sex, age, socioeconomic status, and comorbidities (adjusted hazard ratio = 1.711; 95% confidence interval = 1.098–2.666). Patients with pulmonary, extrapulmonary, and miliary TB had a 1.561-, 1.892-, and 8.334-fold higher risk of AA and AD, respectively. Furthermore, patients with TB at <6 months, 6–12 months, and 1–5 years of follow-up had a 6.896-, 2.671-, and 2.371-fold risk of AA and AD, respectively. Physicians should consider the subsequent development of AA and AD while treating patients with TB.

Keywords: tuberculosis, aortic aneurysm, aortic dissection

1. Introduction

Tuberculosis (TB), an infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, is one of the major causes of death worldwide. In 2019, approximately 10 million individuals were diagnosed with TB, and 1.4 million individuals died because of TB [1]. In Taiwan, the incidence of TB was 37 cases per 100,000 people and that of TB-related deaths was 2.3 per 100,000 people in 2019 [2]. TB typically affects the lungs and results in cavitation, fibrosis, bronchiectasis, and impaired pulmonary function [3]. TB that affects other organs, such as the lymph nodes, pleura, gastrointestinal tract, bones, urogenital tract, and central nervous system, is known as extrapulmonary TB and accounts for 20–25% of all TB cases [4].

Aortic aneurysm (AA) is the permanent dilation of the aorta and most commonly occurs in the infrarenal and proximal thoracic aortic regions. Most AAs are asymptomatic, but progressive enlargement of the aneurysm increases the risk of dissection and rupture [5]. Aortic dissection (AD) is defined as a tear in the inner layer of the aortic wall that leads to the formation of true and false lumens. AD is a relatively uncommon, life-threatening vascular disease with an annual incidence ranging from 3 to 6 cases per 100,000 persons [6,7]. AA and AD have common risk factors, including smoking, hypertension (HTN), genetic connective tissue disorders, male sex, older age, and vascular inflammation caused by infection or atherosclerosis [6,8,9,10]. Infection can lead to arterial wall aneurysmal degeneration, referred to as mycotic aneurysm, a term first coined by William Osler in 1885 [11], and constitutes 0.6–2% of all arterial aneurysms. A review of the literature on mycotic AA from 2000 to 2018 found that the most common microorganism isolated in the disease was Salmonella spp. (33.4%), followed by Staphylococcus spp. (15.6%), Streptococcus spp. (10.4%), and Escherichia coli (3.1%). However, Mycobacteria spp. only constituted 2% of all cases [12].

Previous studies demonstrated that patients with TB have a higher risk of developing systemic diseases such as liver cirrhosis, Parkinson’s disease, sarcoidosis, systemic lupus erythematosus, acute coronary syndrome, and peripheral arterial disease [13,14,15,16,17,18]. Inflammation caused by immune response activation and cytokine induction is a crucial pathogenic mechanism of TB infection [19]. Chronic inflammation also plays an essential role in atherosclerosis, which leads to the development of various cardiovascular diseases [20,21]. Because chronic inflammation increases the risk of developing AA and AD [22,23], and as TB may cause chronic inflammation, we hypothesized that patients with TB have an increased risk of developing AA and AD. We conducted this nationwide population-based cohort study to assess the association between these two diseases.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Data Source

The data assessed in this study were obtained from the Longitudinal Health Insurance Database (LHID), a subset of the Taiwan National Health Insurance (NHI) Research Database (NHIRD). NHIRD maintains data on all claims of the beneficiaries of the Taiwan NHI program and uses the International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM) system for recording diagnoses. The Taiwanese government established the NHI in 1995 as a single-payer compulsory program for all 23 million Taiwanese people. For the protection of privacy, NHIRD removes identifying information and assigns an anonymous number before releasing patient records for research purposes. This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center (TSGHIRB No. B-110-21).

2.2. Sampled Patients

We conducted a nationwide population-based cohort study to investigate the incidence of AA and AD among patients with TB and identify the associated risk factors. Records of patients aged ≥ 20 years who were diagnosed with TB (ICD-9-CM 010–018) between 2000 and 2015 were obtained from the LHID (Figure 1). The date of diagnosis served as the index date. The follow-up period was defined as the interval from the index date to the date of AA and AD diagnosis. We excluded patients with a history of TB, AA, or AD (ICD-9-CM 441.0–441.9) before the index date, those aged < 20 years, and those with incomplete medical information. We randomly selected the TB and non-TB cohorts with the same exclusion criteria from the LHID and matched them by frequency according to their age, sex, and index year at a ratio of 1:2. The TB cohort was subdivided into pulmonary, extrapulmonary, and miliary groups for subgroup analyses. Furthermore, the TB cohort was classified according to different sites of AA and AD, namely, thoracic (ICD-9-CM 441.01, 441.1, 441.2), abdominal (ICD-9-CM 441.02, 441.3, 441.4), thoracoabdominal (ICD-9-CM 441.03, 441.6, 441.7), and unspecified sites (ICD-9-CM 441.00, 441.5, 441.9).

Figure 1.

Figure 1

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Patient selection flowchart. TB = tuberculosis, AA = aortic aneurysm, AD = aortic dissection.

2.3. Outcome Measurement and Comorbidities

All the patients were followed up from the index date until the first diagnosis of AA/AD, death, withdrawal from the NHI program, or 31 December 2015. The study included baseline comorbidities such as diabetes mellitus (DM; ICD-9-CM 250), HTN (ICD-9-CM 401–405), hyperlipidemia (ICD-9-CM 272), ischemic heart disease (IHD; ICD-9-CM 410–414), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD; ICD-9-CM 490–496), stroke (ICD-9-CM 438), chronic kidney disease (CKD; ICD-9-CM 585), peripheral arterial occlusion disease (PAOD; ICD-9-CM 443.9), and obesity (ICD-9-CM 278.0–278.1).

2.4. Statistical Analysis

We compared the distribution of categorical characteristics and baseline comorbidities between patients with and without TB using the chi-square test. In addition, we compared continuous variables between the cohorts using Student’s t-test. We used the Kaplan–Meier method to estimate the cumulative incidences of AA and AD and performed the log-rank test to examine the differences between the cohorts. The incidence rate ratios (IRR) of AA and AD in both cohorts were estimated using Poisson regression analysis. Cox regression analysis was used to estimate the adjusted hazard ratios (HR) for the development of AA and AD after adjusting for sex, age, insured premium, urbanization level, and comorbidities, such as DM, HTN, hyperlipidemia, IHD, COPD, stroke, CKD, PAOD, and obesity. All the analyses were conducted using SPSS software, version 26 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). p-values < 0.05 indicated statistical significance for a two-sided test.

3. Results

We included 31,220 patients in the TB cohort and 62,440 patients in the non-TB cohort. The distributions of age and sex were similar between the cohorts. The mean follow-up periods for the TB and non-TB cohorts were 9.52 ± 11.02 and 10.04 ± 9.18 years, respectively. The patients were predominantly male (71.17%) and aged ≥ 70 years (46.41%). The TB cohort had a higher prevalence of DM and COPD; lower prevalence of HTN, hyperlipidemia, IHD, stroke, CKD, and obesity; and a lower urbanization level than the non-TB cohort (Table 1).

Table 1.

Characteristics of the study participants at baseline.

Total With TB Without TB p
Variables n % n % n %
Overall 93,660 31,220 33.33 62,440 66.67
Sex 0.999
Male 66,657 71.17 22,219 71.17 44,438 71.17
Female 27,003 28.83 9001 28.83 18,002 28.83
Age (years) 63.67 ± 17.32 63.74 ± 17.33 63.64 ± 17.32 0.405
Age group (years) 0.999
20–44 16,314 17.42 5438 17.42 10,876 17.42
45–69 33,876 36.17 11,292 36.17 22,584 36.17
≥70 43,470 46.41 14,490 46.41 28,980 46.41
Insured premium (NT$) 0.003
<18,000 92,378 98.63 30,768 98.55 61,610 98.67
18,000–34,999 1032 1.10 385 1.23 647 1.04
≥35,000 250 0.27 67 0.21 183 0.29
DM <0.001
Without 70,368 75.13 23,042 73.81 47,326 75.79
With 23,292 24.87 8178 26.19 15,114 24.21
HTN <0.001
Without 59,003 63.00 21,732 69.61 37,271 59.69
With 34,657 37.00 9488 30.39 25,169 40.31
Hyperlipidemia <0.001
Without 87,769 93.71 30,159 96.60 57,610 92.26
With 5891 6.29 1061 3.40 4830 7.74
IHD <0.001
Without 71,662 76.51 26,219 83.98 45,443 72.78
With 21,998 23.49 5001 16.02 16,997 27.22
COPD <0.001
Without 69,531 74.24 21,719 69.57 47,812 76.57
With 24,129 25.76 9501 30.43 14,628 23.43
Stroke <0.001
Without 73,991 79.00 26,519 84.94 47,472 76.03
With 19,669 21.00 4701 15.06 14,968 23.97
CKD <0.001
Without 89,710 95.78 30,153 96.58 59,557 95.38
With 3950 4.22 1067 3.42 2883 4.62
PAOD 0.053
Without 93,603 99.94 31,208 99.96 62,395 99.93
With 57 0.06 12 0.04 45 0.07
Obesity 0.002
Without 93,632 99.97 31,218 99.99 62,414 99.96
With 28 0.03 2 0.01 26 0.04
Urbanization level <0.001
1 (The highest) 28,768 30.72 8960 28.70 19,808 31.72
2 41,696 44.52 13,732 43.98 27,964 44.79
3 7425 7.93 2565 8.22 4860 7.78
4 (The lowest) 15,771 16.84 5963 19.10 9808 15.71
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DM = diabetes mellitus, HTN = hypertension, IHD = ischemic heart disease, COPD = chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, CKD = chronic kidney disease, PAOD = peripheral arterial occlusive disease.

Patients with TB had a higher risk for further development of AA and AD than patients without TB (adjusted HR = 1.711; 95% CI = 1.098–2.666; p < 0.001) in Table 2. The risk of AA and AD was higher in patients with HTN, IHD, and stroke than in patients without these comorbidities. As shown in Figure 2, the cumulative incidence of AA and AD in subsequent years was higher in the TB cohort than in the non-TB cohort (log-rank test, p < 0.001).

Table 2.

Factors of aortic aneurysm and aortic dissection by using Cox regression.

Variables Crude HR 95% CI p aHR 95% CI p
TB
Without Reference Reference
With 2.064 1.154 2.875 <0.001 1.711 1.098 2.666 <0.001
Sex
Male 1.501 0.905 2.408 0.110 1.440 0.899 2.306 0.129
Female Reference Reference
Age group (years)
20–44 Reference Reference
45–69 1.786 0.772 2.345 0.512 1.518 0.565 2.103 0.533
≥70 2.065 0.989 3.397 0.668 1.669 0.789 3.020 0.696
Insured premium (NT$)
<18,000 Reference Reference
18,000–34,999 0.000 - - 0.997 0.000 - - 0.998
≥35,000 0.000 - - 0.997 0.000 - - 0.998
DM
Without Reference Reference
With 1.589 1.062 2.267 0.020 1.336 0.828 2.154 0.236
HTN
Without Reference Reference
With 2.309 1.498 3.020 <0.001 1.471 1.311 1.711 <0.001
Hyperlipidemia
Without Reference Reference
With 0.000 - - 0.972 0.000 - - 0.786
IHD
Without Reference Reference
With 1.903 1.564 2.303 <0.001 1.825 1.555 2.225 <0.001
COPD
Without Reference Reference
With 0.986 0.387 1.567 0.084 1.087 0.460 1.626 0.067
Stroke
Without Reference Reference
With 2.976 1.876 4.021 <0.001 2.027 1.690 2.529 <0.001
CKD
Without Reference Reference
With 1.768 1.001 2.897 0.050 1.563 0.881 2.670 0.323
PAOD
Without Reference Reference
With 0.000 - - 0.913 0.000 - - 0.958
Obesity
Without Reference Reference
With 0.000 - - 0.984 0.000 - - 0.982
Urbanization level
1 (The highest) 1.726 1.329 2.676 <0.001 1.637 1.278 2.461 <0.001
2 1.682 1.345 2.443 <0.001 1.606 1.259 2.368 <0.001
3 1.201 1.006 1.703 0.045 1.186 0.936 1.694 0.287
4 (The lowest) Reference Reference
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HR = hazard ratio, CI = confidence interval, aHR = adjusted hazard ratio: adjusted variables listed in the table, TB = tuberculosis, DM = diabetes mellitus, HTN = hypertension, IHD = ischemic heart disease, COPD = chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, CKD = chronic kidney disease, PAOD = peripheral arterial occlusive disease.

Figure 2.

Figure 2

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Kaplan–Meier curve for the cumulative risk of aortic aneurysm and aortic dissection due to tuberculosis. TB = tuberculosis, AA = aortic aneurysm, AD = aortic dissection.

Table 3 shows the stratified analysis performed based on demographic factors and comorbidities. The incidence of AA and AD was higher in the TB cohort than in the non-TB cohort (0.185 vs. 0.15 per 1000 person-years), and the overall IRR of AA and AD was 1.235-fold higher in the TB cohort than in the non-TB cohort. The sex-specific relative risk of AA and AD was higher in patients with TB than in those without TB regardless of sex (males, adjusted HR = 1.738; 95% CI = 1.115–2.702; females, adjusted HR = 1.616; 95% CI = 1.034–2.518). The age-specific relative risk of AA and AD was higher in patients with TB regardless of age group. The age-specific incidence of AA and AD increased in both cohorts, with the highest rate in patients with TB aged ≥ 70 years (0.244 per 1000 person-years). In the comorbidity-specific analysis, the adjusted HR for AA and AD was higher in patients with TB than in those without TB, regardless of the presence of DM, IHD, COPD, stroke, or CKD.

Table 3.

Incidence and aHR for aortic aneurysm and aortic dissection in the TB and non-TB cohorts stratified by sex, age, socioeconomic status, and comorbidities.

TB With Without With vs. without (Reference)
Variables Event Rate
(per 103 PYs)		 Event Rate
(per 103 PYs)		 IRR 95% CI p aHR 95% CI p
Overall 55 0.185 94 0.150 1.235 1.071 1.567 <0.001 1.711 1.098 2.666 <0.001
Sex
Male 43 0.202 72 0.161 1.254 1.139 1.631 <0.001 1.738 1.115 2.702 <0.001
Female 12 0.143 22 0.123 1.165 1.032 1.868 0.006 1.616 1.034 2.518 0.008
Age group (years)
20–44 2 0.061 3 0.051 1.188 1.046 2.976 0.002 1.645 1.051 2.553 0.002
45–69 12 0.125 18 0.098 1.270 1.088 2.000 <0.001 1.760 1.129 2.712 <0.001
≥70 41 0.244 73 0.189 1.287 1.148 1.669 <0.001 1.784 1.153 2.789 <0.001
Insured premium (NT$)
<18,000 55 0.188 94 0.152 1.238 1.178 1.571 <0.001 1.711 1.098 2.666 <0.001
18,000–34,999 0 0.000 0 0.000 - - - - - - - -
≥35,000 0 0.000 0 0.000 - - - - - - - -
DM
Without 40 0.204 73 0.169 1.208 1.070 1.594 0.003 1.672 1.074 2.609 0.001
With 15 0.149 21 0.108 1.374 1.218 2.036 <0.001 1.911 1.223 2.972 <0.001
HTN
Without 22 0.141 39 0.139 1.018 1.006 1.541 0.036 1.411 0.995 2.194 0.053
With 33 0.234 55 0.159 1.468 1.347 1.899 <0.001 2.034 1.314 3.287 <0.001
Hyperlipidemia
Without 55 0.200 94 0.172 1.163 1.057 1.747 <0.001 1.711 1.098 2.666 <0.001
With 0 0.000 0 0.000 - - - - - - - -
IHD
Without 35 0.164 52 0.131 1.257 1.105 1.685 <0.001 1.672 1.092 2.585 <0.001
With 20 0.237 42 0.183 1.296 1.198 1.828 <0.001 1.797 1.153 2.801 <0.001
COPD
Without 31 0.192 68 0.154 1.249 1.098 1.674 <0.001 1.633 1.065 2.598 0.003
With 24 0.177 26 0.141 1.256 1.125 1.810 <0.001 1.740 1.117 2.712 <0.001
Stroke
Without 37 0.162 57 0.130 1.242 1.069 1.655 <0.001 1.666 1.004 2.635 0.045
With 18 0.264 37 0.196 1.348 1.199 1.911 <0.001 1.869 1.118 3.012 <0.001
CKD
Without 50 0.178 88 0.148 1.202 1.104 1.549 <0.001 1.675 1.068 2.596 0.007
With 5 0.302 6 0.179 1.681 1.297 2.866 <0.001 2.330 1.486 3.631 <0.001
PAOD
Without 55 0.185 94 0.150 1.234 1.211 1.581 <0.001 1.711 1.098 2.666 <0.001
With 0 0.000 0 0.000 - - - - - - - -
Obesity
Without 55 0.185 94 0.150 1.234 1.194 1.566 <0.001 1.711 1.098 2.666 <0.001
With 0 0.000 0 0.000 - - - - - - - -
Urbanization level
1 (The highest) 13 0.163 20 0.113 1.441 1.115 2.139 <0.001 1.997 1.297 3.121 <0.001
2 14 0.110 25 0.087 1.263 1.096 1.917 0.001 1.750 1.125 2.784 <0.001
3 5 0.220 10 0.210 1.048 0.964 2.121 0.067 1.452 0.917 2.266 0.154
4 (The lowest) 23 0.341 39 0.337 1.011 0.646 1.526 0.294 1.400 0.896 2.101 0.297
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PYs = person-years, aHR = adjusted hazard ratio: adjusted for the variables listed in Table 2, CI = confidence interval, IRR = incidence rate ratio, TB = tuberculosis, DM = diabetes mellitus, HTN = hypertension, IHD = ischemic heart disease, COPD = chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, CKD = chronic kidney disease, PAOD = peripheral arterial occlusive disease.

We categorized the TB cohort into pulmonary, extrapulmonary, and miliary TB subgroups based on ICD-9-CM codes. Table 4 shows the incidence and adjusted HR of AA and AD for the different types of TB. All TB subgroups had a higher risk of developing AA and AD than patients without TB (pulmonary: adjusted HR = 1.561, 95% CI = 1.005–2.431; extrapulmonary: adjusted HR = 1.892, 95% CI = 1.214–2.936; and miliary: adjusted HR = 8.334, 95% CI = 5.348–12.896).

Table 4.

Incidence and aHR for aortic aneurysm and aortic dissection in the TB and non-TB cohorts stratified by TB type.

TB With Without With vs. without (Reference)
TB Subgroup Event Rate (per 103 PYs) Event Rate (per 103 PYs) IRR 95% CI p aHR 95% CI p
Pulmonary TB 42 0.169 94 0.150 1.126 1.058 1.490 0.001 1.561 1.005 2.431 0.044
Extrapulmonary TB 9 0.205 94 0.150 1.365 1.160 2.049 <0.001 1.892 1.214 2.936 <0.001
Miliary TB 4 0.902 94 0.150 6.013 4.870 8.802 <0.001 8.334 5.348 12.896 <0.001
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PYs = person-years, aHR = adjusted hazard ratio: adjusted for the variables listed in Table 2; CI = confidence interval, IRR = incidence rate ratio, TB = tuberculosis.

We conducted a subgroup analysis of the incidence and adjusted HR of the different sites of AA and AD. The adjusted HR was higher in the TB cohort than in the non-TB cohort for AA and AD occurring in the thoracic (adjusted HR = 1.615; 95% CI = 1.044–2.511), abdominal (adjusted HR = 1.588; 95% CI = 1.025–2.469), thoracoabdominal (adjusted HR = 2.910; 95% CI = 1.876–4.557), and unspecified sites (adjusted HR = 1.823; 95% CI = 1.175–2.843) (Table 5).

Table 5.

Incidence and aHR for aortic aneurysm and aortic dissection stratified by different sites.

TB With Without With vs. without (Reference)
AA/AD Subgroup Event Rate (per 103 PYs) Event Rate (per 103 PYs) IRR 95% CI p aHR 95% CI p
Overall 55 0.185 94 0.150 1.235 1.071 1.567 <0.001 1.711 1.098 2.666 <0.001
Thoracic 16 0.054 29 0.046 1.164 1.039 1.498 0.015 1.615 1.044 2.511 0.007
Abdominal 13 0.044 24 0.038 1.143 1.015 1.435 0.038 1.588 1.025 2.469 0.024
Thoracoabdominal 1 0.003 1 0.002 2.110 1.753 2.525 <0.001 2.910 1.876 4.557 <0.001
Unspecified site 25 0.084 40 0.064 1.319 1.188 1.682 <0.001 1.823 1.175 2.843 <0.001
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PYs = person-years, aHR = adjusted hazard ratio: adjusted for the variables listed in Table 2, CI = confidence interval, IRR = incidence rate ratio, TB = tuberculosis, AA = aortic aneurysm, AD = aortic dissection.

Table 6 presents the incidence and adjusted HR of AA and AD in both cohorts stratified by the follow-up period. The adjusted HR was higher in the TB cohort than in the non-TB cohort for all follow-up period brackets (within 6 months: adjusted HR = 6.896, 95% CI = 5.010–8.226; 6–12 months: adjusted HR = 2.671, 95% CI = 1.675–3.145; and 1–5 years: adjusted HR = 2.371, 95% CI = 1.486–2.884).

Table 6.

Incidence and aHR for aortic aneurysm and aortic dissection stratified by follow-up period.

TB With Without With vs. without (Reference)
Follow-Up Period Event Rate (per 103 PYs) Event Rate (per 103 PYs) IRR 95% CI p aHR 95% CI p
<6 months 17 1.192 7 0.236 5.061 4.267 7.106 <0.001 6.896 5.010 8.226 <0.001
6 months–12 months 4 0.283 5 0.169 1.671 1.335 1.986 <0.001 2.671 1.675 3.145 <0.001
1–5 years 20 0.136 28 0.092 1.481 1.198 1.875 <0.001 2.371 1.486 2.884 <0.001
>5 years 14 0.115 54 0.206 0.560 0.042 0.989 0.041 1.276 0.375 1.790 0.385
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PYs = person-years, aHR = adjusted hazard ratio: adjusted for the variables listed in Table 2, CI = confidence interval, IRR = incidence rate ratio, TB = tuberculosis.

4. Discussion

This is the first nationwide, population-based cohort study to investigate the risk of AA and AD in patients with TB by subgroup analyses. The overall finding was that patients with TB, overwhelmingly, have an increased risk and incidence of AA and AD compared with patients without TB, regardless of sex, age, socioeconomic status, and comorbidities. These findings strengthen the possibility of TB being an independent factor for AA and AD. Widespread hematogenous dissemination of M. tuberculosis (miliary TB) can affect multiple organs, such as the lungs, liver, spleen, and central nervous system. Life-threatening cardiovascular complications have been identified in patients with miliary TB [24]. A previous study showed that disseminated TB had a higher serum procalcitonin level than non-disseminated TB (0.75 ± 0.79 versus 0.14 ± 0.39 ng/mL; p < 0.0001), which was correlated with the severity of inflammation and poor prognosis [25]. In our study, compared with patients without TB, patients in the subgroup with miliary TB had the highest adjusted HR of AA and AD (adjusted HR, 8.334; 95% CI, 5.348–12.896), which highlighted the role of systemic inflammation in the development of AA and AD.

Tuberculous mycotic AAs can develop through direct invasion of the aortic intima, seeding adventitia from the vasa vasorum, and most commonly, direct extension from an adjacent focus of TB infection [26]. In addition to direct aortic damage by M. tuberculosis, we propose two possible mechanisms of how TB causes AA and AD. First, TB infection could increase the expression of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) via multiple intracellular signaling cascades, mainly NF-κB, p38, and the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway, and reflect the disease severity [27,28]. MMPs are zinc-dependent endopeptidase proteins that can degrade and fragment various components of the extracellular matrix (ECM), such as collagen, elastin, fibronectin, and laminin. AA and AD occur as a result of disruption of the aortic wall integrity caused by ECM degradation. MMP-1, MMP-2, and MMP-9 have been shown to be fundamental in the development of AA and AD [29,30]. Previous studies showed that high plasma MMP-9 levels are associated with increased AA and AD formation and especially aneurysm rupture [22,31,32]. Hence, elevated MMP levels may contribute to TB-induced AA and AD.

Second, atherosclerosis may cause mechanical weakening of the aortic wall, compensatory lumen enlargement, and activation of inflammation-inducing proteolytic enzymes, resulting in AA formation [33,34]. Furthermore, an ulcerating atherosclerotic plaque that penetrates through the elastic lamina into the media can cause intramural hematoma, dissection, or rupture [35,36]. Various microbes may contribute to atherosclerotic processes, including Helicobacter pylori, Chlamydia pneumoniae, cytomegalovirus, hepatitis C virus, and human immunodeficiency virus [37,38]. M. tuberculosis may also participate in the development of atherosclerosis. TB infection and atherosclerosis share similar inflammatory processes, which involve increased expression of proinflammatory cytokines (interleukin [IL]-1, IL-2, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-α, and interferon-γ) and the activation of immune cells (monocytes, macrophage, CD4+ T helper 1 [TH1] cells, and TH17 cells) [39]. Previous studies have provided convincing evidence that antibodies against mycobacterial heat-shock protein 65 induce the development of atherosclerosis [40,41]. These findings suggest the involvement of M. tuberculosis in atherosclerotic processes that lead to the development of AA and AD.

Ascertainment bias in this study should be considered because patients with TB may be more likely to be diagnosed with AA and AD because of additional chest imaging studies for the workup of TB. To overcome this bias, we conducted stratification analyses of the follow-up periods and the location sites of AA and AD. We found a prolonged risk of AA and AD up to the 5th year after diagnosis. We also found that patients with TB had higher adjusted HRs in both thoracic and abdominal regions than the control participants. These findings confirm that the increased risk of AA and AD in patients with TB is not caused by imaging studies bias.

This study has some limitations. First, NHIRD does not record family history and health-related lifestyle factors in detail, including smoking, body mass index, and alcohol consumption, which were potential confounding factors in this study. Second, relevant clinical variables, including imaging results, acid-fast staining, and culture reports, were unavailable from the database; therefore, we could not confirm the time of TB smear or culture-negativity or assess the severity of TB. Third, the Taiwan Centers for Disease Control did not widely implement latent TB infection screening and treatment until 2016, especially for all age groups with a history of close contact with patients with TB. All cases included in our study between 2000 and 2015 were of active TB infection; therefore, we could not investigate the risk of AA and AD in patients with latent TB. Fourth, bias caused by unknown confounders remains in this retrospective cohort study despite meticulous adjustments. Therefore, a well-designed randomized prospective control study is warranted to conclusively establish a causal relationship between TB and the subsequent development of AA and AD.

5. Conclusions

We conducted a nationwide population-based cohort study to investigate the association between TB and the development of AA and AD and analyzed the risk of AA and AD in TB subgroups. Patients with TB had a 1.711-fold higher risk of developing AA and AD than patients without TB, particularly in the miliary TB subgroup. These findings strengthen the association of systemic inflammation between these two diseases. Physicians should consider the subsequent development of AA and AD while treating patients with TB.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.-T.C. and C.-H.S.; methodology, C.-H.C. and W.-C.C.; software, C.-H.C. and W.-C.C.; formal analysis, M.-T.C., C.-H.C., W.-C.C. and C.-H.S.; resources, W.-C.C.; data curation, M.-T.C., C.-K.P. and H.-Y.K.; writing—original draft preparation, M.-T.C.; writing—review and editing, M.-T.C., H.-Y.K., C.-K.P., W.-C.C. and C.-H.S.; visualization, M.-T.C.; supervision, W.-C.C. and C.-H.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was supported by grants from the Tri-Service General Hospital (TSGH-B-110012).

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Review Board of Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center (TSGHIRB No. B-100-21).

Informed Consent Statement

Patient consent was waived due to all personal data in National Health Insurance Research Database had been multiply encrypted.

Data Availability Statement

Restrictions apply to the availability of these data. Data was obtained from National Health Insurance database and are available from the authors with the permission of National Health Insurance Administration of Taiwan.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Footnotes

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Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Data Availability Statement

Restrictions apply to the availability of these data. Data was obtained from National Health Insurance database and are available from the authors with the permission of National Health Insurance Administration of Taiwan.

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