Table 1.

Different types of photosensitizers-loaded biocompatible nanocarriers in PDT for cancer.

Biocompatible Nanocarriers	Preparation Method	Size (nm)	Photosensitizers	Outcomes
Albumin nanoparticles	Solvent diffusion method	100 to 200 nm	Hematoporphyrin	The synthesized hematoporphyrin-loaded albumin nanoparticle accumulation was increased in murine lung tumor cells compared to normal lungs cells [92].
Polymeric micelles (Pluronic P123 and F127 mixture)	Solvent evaporation method	12.5 to 16.6 nm	Photofrin II®	PDT irradiation on PS loaded polymeric micelles showed an increased cytotoxic effect in the human cancer cell model [93].
TmPyP-loaded PLGA nanoparticles	Evaporation method	Between 118 ± 5 and 133 ± 2 nm	5,10,15,20-tetrakis(1-methylpyridinium-4-yl)-porphyrin tetra-iodide (TMPyP)	The formulation showed positive outcomes in laser irradiation and skin permeability studies, and it can be successfully used for topical diseases, such as melanoma [94].
Chitosan nanoparticles	Ionic crosslinking method	254.3 ± 9.42 nm	ALA	The synthesized nanoparticle shows a spherical shape, good dispersion, and stability. The PDT effect of ALA-loaded nanoparticles was studied against WSU-HN6 and CAL-27 cells—the elevated mitochondrial ROS production was observed in both cells [95].
Thermoresponsive solid lipid nanoparticles	High-performance hot homogenization and ultrasonication method	from ~20 nm up to 700 nm	Temoporfin	Temoporfin-loaded solid lipid nanoparticle formulation was tested in 4T1 (murine mammary carcinoma) and MDA-MB-231 (human breast adenocarcinoma) cells. It showed faster accumulation in the cells, and induced increased phototoxicity against tumor cells [96].
Poly(d,l-lactide-co-glycolide) nanoparticles	Salting-out technique	Two types 167 and 370 nm in diameter	Verteporfin	The synthesized biocompatible polymeric nanoparticle was tested against EMT-6 mammary tumor cells, and the smaller size of the nanoparticle showed very good photocytotoxicity compared to large nanoparticles. Similarly, the small nanoparticles effectively controlled the tumor growth in an in vivo mice study [97].
Hyaluronic acid-based carbon nanotubes	π-π interactions	203 ± 6.6 nm	Chlorin e6	The synthesized single-walled carbon nanotubes confirmed the enhanced PDT effect of chlorin e6 against CACO-2 cells compared to free chlorin e6 [98].
Core-shell polymeric nanoparticles	Microemulsion polymerization method	~170 and 220 nm	HPPH	The synthesized nanoparticles help to prevent the fluorescence quenching in water. It helps to achieve fluorescence imaging-guided PDT [99].
Lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles	Self-assembly	170 ± 20 nm	Zinc phthalocyanine	The synthesized lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles improved the stability, cellular uptake, sustained release, and fluorescence properties of Zinc Phthalocyanine. The synthesized nanoparticle was tested both in vitro and in vivo. In vitro cytotoxic study shows increased cell death against MCF-7 cells, and an increased PDT antitumor effect in an in vivo study (Sprague Dawley rats) [100].
Pluronic-based nanocomposite	Thin-film hydration method.	121.8 nm	Methylene blue	The synthesized nanocomposite shows synergistic effects (PDT/PTT) against the human cervical cancer cell line (SiHa). Cell death occurred by following the cell apoptosis pathway, and it can effectively treat cancer via noninvasive phototherapy [101].
Multifunctional mesoporous silica nanoparticle	Sol-gel method	200 nm	Indocyanine green	The combined chemodynamic/PTT/PDT therapy shows that an increased inhibition rate of HeLa cells compared to the treatment given by chemodynamic therapy alone or dual PTT/PDT [83].
Rose bengal-loaded nanostructured poly-amidoamine dendrimers	Michael addition method followed by encapsulation	20 nm	Rose bengal	The controlled release property of Rose bengal-loaded dendrimer formulation was confirmed by the in vitro drug release study. The nanostructured formulation produced remarkable photocytotoxicity properties against DLA cells (Dalton’s Lymphoma Ascite) [102].
BODIPY with mPEG-based phototheranostic nanoparticle	Freeze-drying method	282 nm	BODIPY	The synthesized Mitomycin C-graphene BODIPY-mPEG nanoparticle possessed excellent properties for applying tumor tissue imaging-guided photo chemo synergistic therapy [103].
Pluronic®-based nanoparticles	Solid dispersion method	NA	Hypericin	The synthesized micelles showed high stability and selective internalization in MCF-7 cells. The accumulated micelles were observed in mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum, and it showed effective phototoxic cell death [104].
Hypocrellin and nanosilver-loaded PLGA-TPGS copolymeric nanoparticles	Ring-opening and bulk polymerization method	89.59 to 566.8 nm	Hypocrellin	An enhanced phototoxic effect was observed in A549 cells (human adeno lung carcinoma) irradiated by 590 nm using a mercury vapor lamp [105].
Pectin-coated silver nanoparticles	Heated and stirring method	2.3 ± 0.7 nm and 9 ± 6 nm.	Riboflavin	The synthesized pectin-based nanoparticle increases the biocompatibility of silver nanoparticles, and the loaded riboflavin emission enhanced singlet oxygen production compared to the control. Cytotoxicity study shows the increased photodamage effect when nanoparticles and riboflavin are present in the sample [106].
Albumin-based nanoparticle	Self-assembly method	36 nm	Curcumin	Enhanced antitumor activity was observed in HeLa cells through PDT. The curcumin derivative-loaded nanoparticle induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in HeLa cells [107].