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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2022 Jan 5.
Published in final edited form as: Parent Sci Pract. 2019 Dec 13;20(3):229–239. doi: 10.1080/15295192.2019.1694834

Maternal Attribution and Chinese Immigrant Children’s Social Skills: The Mediating Role of Authoritative Parenting Practices

Huiguang Ren, Charissa, S L Cheah, Biao Sang, Junsheng Liu
PMCID: PMC8730373  NIHMSID: NIHMS1556439  PMID: 34992503

SYNOPSIS

Objective.

This study explores the contributions of Chinese immigrant mothers’ parenting cognitions and parenting practices to their children’s social skills.

Design.

We used a cross-sectional design to examine the mediating role of authoritative parenting in associations between Chinese immigrant mothers’ parenting attributions and their children’s social skills. Chinese immigrant mothers (N = 208, Mage = 37.36 years) reported their attributions regarding successes and failures in their daily caregiving experiences, authoritative parenting practices, and demographic information. Their preschool children’s (Mage = 4.51 years, 46.2% females) social skills in school were rated by their teachers.

Results.

Maternal attributions of successful events to uncontrollable causes and unsuccessful events to controllable causes were associated with more authoritative parenting. In turn, more authoritative parenting was associated with more competent social skills in children. In contrast, maternal attributions of successful events to controllable causes and unsuccessful events to uncontrollable causes were associated with less authoritative parenting, which in turn was associated with poorer social skills in children.

Conclusions.

Promoting Chinese immigrant mothers’ attributions that preserve positive efficacy during daily parenting tasks may enhance their engagement in warm, autonomy-promoting and regulatory parenting, which in turn may facilitate their children’s social skills.

Keywords: Chinese immigrant parenting, children’s social skills, maternal parenting attributions, authoritative parenting, controllability

INTRODUCTION

Parental attributions are parents’ causal interpretations for their own behaviors, children’s behaviors, and parent-child interactions (Sigel, McGillicuddy-DeLisi, & Goodnow, 2014). Past research has focused primarily on two aspects of parenting attributions, specifically, parental attributions for their children’s behavior (i.e., child-referent attributions) and parental attributions regarding their own parenting (i.e., parent-referent attributions; e.g., Bornstein, Putnick, & Lansford, 2011; Cheah & Rubin, 2004). The current study focused on parent-referent attributions.

Most parent-referent attribution research examined the perceived locus of the causal attribution regarding whether it was internal or external (i.e., causes situated in or outside the parent; e.g., Bornstein et al., 2011). However, research has documented cultural-specific parent-referent attribution patterns during childrearing in Chinese and Chinese immigrant parents (e.g., Bornstein et al., 2011; Ren, Sun, Cheah, Sang, & Liu, 2018). Specifically, the evaluation of causes according to their perceived controllability appears to be important within the Chinese cultural context (Ren et al., 2018). One distinctive feature of traditional Chinese childrearing values is emphasis on parental control over environmental factors (Cheah & Rubin, 2004). Therefore, Chinese immigrant mothers may focus more on the controllability than the locus of the causes when they make attributions of caregiving outcomes (Ren et al., 2018).

Specifically, due to the perception that causes related to one’s ability and the task difficulty are relatively stable (Weiner, 1985), Chinese immigrant mothers view the innate ability and the difficulty of parenting tasks as uncontrollable causes during caregiving (Ren et al., 2018). In contrast, traditional Chinese culture emphasizes an individual’s control over own feelings, mood, and effort for continuous self-improvement (Mauss, Butler, Roberts, & Chu, 2010). As such, Chinese parents may believe that their effort and mood, which could vary across caregiving situations, are causes that can be controlled.

Another cause of parenting outcomes is child cooperation, which derives from “luck” attributions and is described as an external and uncontrollable causal factor in Western research (Sirignano & Lachman, 1985). However, in Chinese cultural contexts, parents value hierarchical and interdependent families (Triandis, 2001), emphasize children’s compliance, and believe that parents can have a major impact on children’s behavior (Chao, 1996). Therefore, Chinese mothers appear to believe that they are responsible for children’s compliance during caregiving and view child cooperation as a controllable rather than uncontrollable factor in their caregiving outcomes (Ren et al., 2018). Previous research has documented that parent-referent attributions are associated with parents’ behaviors with their children and children’s socialization experience (Bugental et al., 2010). We examined whether mothers’ culture-specific parenting attributions contribute to their children’s social development in Chinese immigrant families.

Parental Attribution and Chinese Immigrant Children’s Social Skills

Children’s social skills are their situation-specific behaviors that meet the goal of obtaining positive and desirable social outcomes (Merrell & Gimpel, 2014). Poor social skills could significantly impair young Chinese immigrant children’s adjustment especially during their transition from a familiar home cultural environment to an unfamiliar schooling one (Cheah & Leung, 2011). With their large and growing numbers in the United States (Hooper & Batalova, 2015), the social well-being of young Chinese immigrant children was examined in the current study.

Parents’ parent-referent attributions are associated with their children’s social development in Western contexts (Melson, Ladd, & Hsu, 1993). Specifically, maternal attributions of childrearing failures to more stable and uncontrollable causes, such as the difficulty of the task, are associated with lower levels of peer acceptance in children (Melson et al., 1993). In contrast, parents who view their innate ability as the reason for their successful caregiving tend to be more efficacious in fulfilling their parenting responsibilities (Bugental et al., 2010), which is in turn, associated with children’s more competent social skills (Jones & Prinz, 2005). However, whether Chinese mothers’ culture-specific parenting attributions contribute to their children’s social development remains unknown. Moreover, potential mediating mechanisms that may explain associations between parental attributions and child outcomes are poorly understood.

The Mediating Role of Authoritative Parenting

The authoritative parenting style refers to a parenting prototype that emphasizes both responsiveness and demandingness, power assertiveness and autonomy supportiveness, and warmth and structure (Baumrind, 2013). Authoritative parenting is consistently predictive of Chinese immigrant children’s positive social development and competent social skills (e.g., Chen et al., 2014).

Previous research has linked parent-referent parental attributions with parents’ engagement in authoritative parenting practices in Western contexts. Parental attributions of unsuccessful caregiving outcomes to the task difficulty or their own ability (i.e., “I failed in a parenting task because it is too hard or I don’t have enough ability.”) may reflect lower confidence in their ability to enact change (Bugental et al., 2010) and lead parents to withdraw from warm caregiving (Leerkes & Crockenberg, 2002). In contrast, parents’ attributions of their parenting success to their own ability or task difficulty (i.e., “I succeeded in a parenting task because it is easy or I have adequate ability.”) may reflect higher levels of parental efficacy to enact change (Su, Cuskelly, Gilmore, & Sullivan, 2017) and lead to more engagement in authoritative parenting. However, how Chinese parents’ culture-specific parent-referent attributions might contribute to authoritative parenting practices and subsequently their children’s social skills remain unknown. Therefore, we focused on the role of authoritative parenting in associations between Chinese immigrant mothers’ parent-referent attributions and their children’s social skills.

The Present Study

We examined whether Chinese mothers’ attributions for their parenting successes and failures to controllable and uncontrollable reasons were associated with their children’s social skills via the mediation path of authoritative parenting practices. Although the cross-sectional nature of our data does not allow us to conclude the direction of the associations among these variables, in our conceptual mediation model, we proposed that mothers’ attributions would contribute to their authoritative parenting, which in turn would be associated with their children’s teacher-rated social skills.

Based on previous research, the following specific hypotheses were proposed. First, mothers’ attributions of their parenting success to controllable causes (i.e., their effort, good mood, or children’s cooperation), or their parenting failure to uncontrollable causes (i.e., their lack of ability or the task being too difficult), were proposed to be associated with their engagement in less authoritative parenting. Second, mothers’ attributions of their parenting success to uncontrollable causes (i.e., their ability or the task being easy), or their parenting failure to controllable causes (i.e., bad mood, insufficient effort, or children’s lack of cooperation) were expected to lead to greater engagement in authoritative parenting. Finally, mothers’ higher levels of authoritative parenting were expected to be associated with better social skills in their children.

METHOD

Participants

Chinese immigrant mothers (N = 208, Mage = 37.36 years, SD = 4.27) with preschool children (Mage = 4.51 years, SD = 1.09, 46.2% females) participated. All mothers were first-generation immigrants and married to ethnic Chinese spouses, with most having at least a college degree (87.5%). The mothers had been in the United States for an average of 11 years (SD = 6.87).

Procedures

Mothers were recruited from local Chinese language schools, churches, and supermarkets in the Maryland and Washington, DC, area. Data were collected during a home visit after written consent was obtained. The mothers completed the questionnaires in their preferred language. The children’s teacher rated children’s social skills in a school setting approximately 1 week after the home visit. The families received $40 and project newsletters as compensation. Ethical approval was obtained from the University of Maryland, Baltimore County Institutional Review Board (Y16CC20229).

Measures

The measures utilized in the study were forward- and back-translated by Chinese and English bilinguals to ensure the comparability with the original English version. The measures have been demonstrated to be reliable in Chinese immigrant samples (e.g., Ren et al., 2018).

Parental Attribution.

Mothers reported their attributions for daily parenting tasks on the Parent Attributions Questionnaire (PAQ; Sirignano & Lachman, 1985). Five causes (mothers’ ability, mood and effort; task difficulty; and children’s cooperation) are presented to explain success and failure for seven parenting tasks (dressing, bathing, comforting, teaching, disciplining, communicating, and playing). A sample item is, “When I am able to get my child to take a bath, it is because: (a) I am good at this, (b) This is easy to do, (c) My child makes this easy to do, (d) I’ve tried hard, and (e) I’m in a good mood.” The means of each cause for the seven tasks were calculated separately for success and failure, which generated ten scores. In the present sample, α = .76.

Authoritative Parenting.

The Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire (PSDQ; Robinson, Mandleco, Olsen, & Hart, 2001) was used to measure mothers’ authoritative parenting practices. The authoritative scale consists of three subscales: warmth (7 items, α = .78; e.g., “I give praise when my child is good.”), reasoning (4 items, α = .70; e.g., “I explain the consequences of the child’s behavior.”), and autonomy (4 items, α = .69; e.g., “I encourage my child to freely express himself/herself even when disagreeing with me.”). Each item was rated on a scale of 1 (never) to 5 (always). The α of the overall authoritative construct was .87.

Children’s Social Skills.

Teachers rated the children’s social skills in the school setting using the Social Skills Questionnaire – Sociability (SSQ-S; Hart & Robinson, 1996). The SSQ-S is a 36-item measure of children’s overall social skills (e.g., “Has many friends”, “Controls temper in conflict situations with peers”). The frequency of each behavior was rated on a 3-point scale (0 = never to 2 = very often). An overall social skills score was generated by calculating the mean of the scale. In the current sample, α = .94.

Analytic Plan

Structure equation modeling (SEM) using Mplus 7 (Muthén & Muthén, 1998–2012) was utilized to examine the mediating role of authoritative parenting in associations between parental attributions and children’s social skills. The overall model fit was evaluated with the following criteria: CFI and TLI above .95, RMSEA below .06, and SRMR below .08 (Hu & Bentler, 1999). The present study adopted the controllable-uncontrollable structure of the PAQ (Ren et al., 2018). Mothers’ effort, mood, and children’s cooperation were used to generate a latent controllable parental attribution construct, whereas mothers’ ability and task difficulty were used to create a latent uncontrollable parental attribution construct. Parental attributions for success and failure were calculated separately to yield four dimensions of parental attributions. Three parenting dimensions (warmth, reasoning, autonomy-granting) were used to generate a latent authoritative parenting construct. Maternal age, child age, and child gender were treated as covariates in the model. The overall structure of the tested model is presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Figure 1.

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The mediation model with authoritative parenting as mediator. Significant standardized coefficients were indicated in the figure and standardized structural coefficients were presented in text. Solid lines represented significant paths and dashed line represented non-significant path. Maternal age, child age, and child gender were controlled as covariates in the model. * p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.

RESULTS

The descriptive statistics and correlations among study variables were presented in Table 1. The SEM model yielded a good model fit, χ2 (101, N = 208) = 276.14, p < .001, CFI = .96, SRMR = .04, and RMSEA = .05, 90% CI [.02, .08]. In predicting authoritative parenting (R2 = .40), there were positive main effects of parental attributions to uncontrollable causes for success (b = .18, SE = .06, p < .01) and parental attributions to controllable causes for failure (b = .41, SE = .16, p < .05), and negative main effects of parental attributions to controllable causes for success (b = −.42, SE = .17, p < .05) and parental attributions to uncontrollable causes for failure (b = −.13, SE = .04, p < .01). In turn, authoritative parenting positively (b = .17, SE = .05, p < .01) predicted children’s social skills (R2 = .07). There were positive indirect effects of parental attributions to uncontrollable causes for success (ab = .03, SE = .01, 95% CI [.01, .05]) and parental attributions to controllable causes for failure (ab = .07, SE = .02, 95% CI [.02, .12]) on children’s social skills via authoritative parenting. The indirect paths from parental attributions to controllable causes for success (ab = −.07, SE = .02, 95% CI [−.11, −.02]) and parental attributions to uncontrollable causes for failure (ab = −.02, SE = .01, 95% CI [−.03, −.01]) to children’s social skills were negative. None of the direct paths from the four dimensions of parental attributions to children’s social skills was significant.

TABLE 1.

Correlations and Descriptive Statistics of Study Variables

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 M SD
1. Controllable success - 45.76 10.70
2. Uncontrollable success .34** - 39.87 12.18
3. Controllable failure .59** −.07 - 40.94 11.41
4. Uncontrollable failure .21** .21** .26** - 26.91 9.97
5. Authoritative parenting .16* .17* .10 −.22** - 4.03 0.50
6. Social skills .04 −.07 .06 −.16* .18* - 50.16 13.40
7. Child gender .00 .02 −.01 .06 .04 .14 - 1.46 0.50
8. Child age −.10 −.02 −.04 .03 −.11 .07 −.10 - 4.51 1.09
9. Mother age .14 .01 −.07 .06 .05 −.02 −.19** .22** 37.36 4.27
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Note. Male = 1, Female = 2.

*

p < .05.

**

p < .01.

DISCUSSION

We focused primarily on the controllability dimension of Chinese immigrant mothers’ causal attributions for their successful and unsuccessful childrearing experiences. Due to the perception that causes related to one’s ability and the difficulty of the task are relatively stable, one’s ability and the task difficulty are considered out of one’s control (i.e., uncontrollable causes; Weiner, 1985). In contrast, the greater variability over time in causes related to one’s mood and effort, particularly within the Chinese cultural framework that emphasizes individuals’ control over their own mood and effort and their children’s compliance, may lead Chinese immigrant mothers to consider these causes to be within their control (i.e., controllable causes; Ren et al., 2018).

The findings revealed potential mechanisms that might explain how Chinese immigrant mothers’ controllability-based attributions were associated with children’s social skills. Chinese immigrant mothers who made more attributions of their successful caregiving experiences to uncontrollable reasons (i.e., their ability and the task difficulty) and unsuccessful caregiving experiences to controllable reasons (i.e., their mood, effort, and children’s cooperation) were more likely to engage in authoritative parenting, which in turn was associated with higher levels of teacher-rated social skills in their children. In contrast, Chinese immigrant mothers’ attributions of their successful caregiving experiences to controllable reasons and unsuccessful caregiving experiences to uncontrollable reasons were associated with lower levels of reported engagement in authoritative parenting, which was in turn associated with poorer social skills in their children.

Mothers who attribute their parenting successes to their innate ability and the task being easy may have more confidence in fulfilling their parenting responsibilities. Likewise, mothers who attribute their parenting failures to controllable causes, such as insufficient effort or bad mood, may view their parenting failures to be more malleable and alterable. One crucial precondition of positive parental involvement is the perception that parents are important and can influence the results of the parent-child interaction (Jones & Prinz, 2005). When they felt more confident in fulfilling their parenting responsibilities, Chinese immigrant mothers engaged in more authoritative parenting (Su et al., 2017). Therefore, Chinese immigrant mothers with more attributions that reflect higher confidence in accomplishing daily parenting tasks may be more willing to be warm, responsive, and autonomy-supportive with their children (Leerkes & Crockenberg, 2002).

In contrast, mothers who perceive parenting success as due to more controllable causes may view their control over their own effort, mood, and especially their children as essential to their parenting success. Traditionally, Chinese culture emphasizes individuals’ responsibility for controlling emotions (Mauss et al., 2010) and children (Chao, 1996). Thus, to fulfill their parenting responsibilities over time, these mothers may engage in more control and less authoritative parenting practices (Jones & Prinz, 2005). Likewise, perceiving failure in daily parenting tasks as being due to their lack of ability or the task being too difficult may reflect Chinese immigrant mothers’ perceptions of low parenting efficacy. Therefore, mothers may perceive that they are unable to improve their parenting performance, and thus, withdraw their engagement in warm, regulatory, and autonomy-supportive parenting (Jones & Prinz, 2005).

In turn, children reared with warm support may be more open to parents’ socialization effort and display more competent social skills (Chen et al., 2014), whereas less parental warmth is associated with poorer self-regulation ability and less prosocial behaviors in children (Baumrind, 2013). Authoritative parents’ use of reasoning may also promote their children’s perspective-taking skills and peer acceptance (O’Reilly & Peterson, 2014). Moreover, children with autonomy-supportive parents may have more opportunities to practice their social skills independently and consequently become more socially competent (Walker & MacPhee, 2011). Therefore, through the mediating role of authoritative parenting practices, Chinese immigrant mothers’ attributions that preserve their feelings of efficacy may facilitate the development of their children’s social skills, whereas their attributions that reflect feelings of lower efficacy may eventually impair the development of children’s social skills.

Some limitations of the present study should be noted. First, cross-sectional data precluded our ability to make causal inferences regarding the relation between parental attributions and authoritative parenting practices. Future longitudinal studies are necessary to support the proposed model structure. Second, only adult reports were collected in the present study. Mothers’ self-reported parenting may be different from their actual parenting and teachers’ reports of children’s social skills may only reflect children’s social behaviors in the school context. Future studies could consider using observations of parenting and child social skills in other settings.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE AND THEORY

These findings contribute to our theoretical understanding of potential mechanisms underlying the associations between maternal parent-referent attributions and child social development among Chinese families living in a Western context. Chinese immigrant mothers with different patterns of attributions about daily caregiving experiences may differentially engage in authoritative parenting practices. Parenting training with Chinese immigrant mothers could focus on fostering patterns of controllability-based attributions that facilitate parents’ demonstration of authoritative parenting to support their children’s social skill development.

Acknowledgements:

The authors thank the participating families and the research assistants who helped collect the data. The ideas and opinions expressed herein are those of the authors alone, and endorsement by the authors’ institutions is not intended and should not be inferred.

Funding: This work was supported by Grant [1R03HD052827–01] from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development and the Foundation for Child Development.

Role of the Funders/Sponsors: None of the funders or sponsors of this research had any role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; or decision to submit the manuscript for publication.

Footnotes

Ethical Principles: The authors affirm having followed professional ethical guidelines in preparing this work. These guidelines include obtaining informed consent from human participants, maintaining ethical treatment and respect for the rights of human or animal participants, and ensuring the privacy of participants and their data, such as ensuring that individual participants cannot be identified in reported results or from publicly available original or archival data.

Conflict of Interest Disclosures: Each author signed a form for disclosure of potential conflicts of interest. No authors reported any financial or other conflicts of interest in relation to the work described.

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