Table 3. Therapies used in literature.

ILE: intravascular lipid emulsion

Treatment	Mechanism of action	Dose	Advantages	Disadvantages	Successes	Failures
Anti-arrhythmic drugs	Pharmacological attenuation of arrhythmia	Depends on agent	Well studied with known effects	Drug-induced arrhythmia	None	Marraffa et al. [15], Enakpene et al. [2]
Sodium bicarbonate	Reversal of Na­+ blockade	1 mg/kg loading followed by 0.5 mg/kg every 10 minutes as needed	Increased survival in arrhythmia	Aggressive treatment can cause metabolic alkalosis and hypokalemia		Enakpene et al. [2], Marraffa et. al. [15]
Isoproterenol	Sympathomimetic action	1.25 mL/minute followed by 2–20 mL/minute as needed	Rapid onset of action	Can cause drug-induced arrhythmia and cardiovascular collapse	Vaughn et al. [18], Marraffa et al. [15], Enakpene et al. [2], Spinner et al. [20], Eggleston et al. [19]
Transvenous pacing	Overdrive pacing		Safe and low-risk procedure	Requires skill and equipment for placement	Vaughn et al. [18], Marraffa et al. [15], Spinner et al. [20], Eggleston et al. [19]
Lipid emulsion therapy	Hydrophobic lipid “sink” for toxin	1.5 mL/kg of 20% ILE followed by 0.25 mg/kg/minute	Promising results in general drug toxicity management	Protocols are not standardized		Enakpene et al. [2], Marraffa et al. [15]