Abstract
早期诊断是胃癌患者良好预后的关键,如何在人群中筛查胃癌高危者是当前的一个热点。基于血清的胃癌早期诊断检测适用于高风险人群筛查,更加方便、安全。本文介绍了胃癌的血清生物学标志物的研究进展,包括血清DNA甲基化、各种RNA、胃蛋白酶原、胃泌素、骨桥蛋白、MG7-Ag和CA724等血清生物学标志物在胃癌诊断方面的价值,并指出寻找胃癌特异的RNA是比较有前景的早期诊断和筛查方法。
Abstract
Early diagnosis is the key to improve the prognosis of gastric cancer. How to screen out high-risk subjects of gastric cancer in population is a hot spot. Serum-based early detection of gastric cancer is suitable for high-risk population screening, which is more convenient and safer. This article reviews the diagnostic value of serum biomarkers for gastric cancer, including serum DNA methylation, various RNAs, pepsinogen, gastrin, osteopontin, MG7-Ag and CA724. Until now, there is still lack of ideal biomarkers for gastric cancer, and searching for specific RNAs may be promising for early diagnosis and screening of gastric cancer.
Keywords: Stomach neoplasms/diagnosis; Stomach neoplasms/blood; Biomarkers, tumor/blood; Early diagnosis; Review
2018年全球新增胃癌患者103.4万例,占所有癌症新发病例的5.7% [ 1] 。我国是胃癌高发国家,胃癌在自然人群中的发病率约为31.28/10万,其中男性胃癌发病率为42.93/10万,女性为19.03/10万,男性的年龄标准化发病率是女性的两倍 [ 2] 。早期胃癌无明显症状,大多数患者在首次诊断时已经处于中晚期,错过最佳治疗时机 [ 3] 。进展期胃癌患者五年存活率只有30%左右,而如能早期发现、及时治疗,患者五年存活率可达90%以上。
因此,早期发现是胃癌诊治的关键,如何在人群中筛查出胃癌高危者是当前研究的热点。其中,血清学筛查是最易推广和最便捷的方法,对胃癌的早期发现和筛查具有重要意义。本文就胃癌早期诊断的相关血清学标志物作一综述。
1 胃癌早期诊断的分子生物学标志物
越来越多的证据表明,癌症是由表观遗传和遗传异常引起的。DNA甲基化、非编码RNA和组蛋白修饰等表观遗传学都是可遗传、短暂、可逆的基因表达,但不伴随DNA序列的改变,在癌症发展过程中起关键作用 [ 4] 。
1.1 DNA甲基化
表观遗传调控在胃癌发生、发展过程中起重要作用,而DNA甲基化是主要的表观遗传学改变,肿瘤中启动子甲基化比基因突变更易发生 [ 5] 。当甲基化发生在基因启动子富含核苷酸CpG区域时,甲基化基因与紧密的染色质结构相关并伴有相关基因的转录沉默,特别是肿瘤抑制基因 [ 6] 。甲基化可导致一些重要基因失活,如DNA修复基因、细胞周期调控基因、凋亡基因、转录调控基因和信号通路调控基因,导致细胞失控性增殖 [ 7] 。异常启动子甲基化发生在癌变早期,CpG岛的高甲基化可能成为预测早期肿瘤最有前景的生物学标志物之一 [ 5, 8] 。Wen等 [ 8] 分析了血液中11个肿瘤相关基因甲基化在胃癌诊断中的作用,通过比较11个甲基化基因在胃癌患者和非肿瘤对照组血液样本中出现的频率,发现 RUNX3、 RASSF1A和 Reprimo基因的启动子甲基化是一种潜在的非侵入性生物标志物,可用于胃癌的早期诊断,尤其是 Reprimo基因,其敏感度和特异度分别为82%和89%。 Reprimo基因是一种高度糖基化蛋白肿瘤抑制基因,将异常细胞阻滞于G2期,抑制细胞的增殖和分化,启动子甲基化使其表达沉默 [ 9] ,其甲基化发生在多种恶性肿瘤的早期。研究收集43例胃癌患者的组织和血浆样本以及31例年龄和性别匹配的无症状健康对照组血浆样本,结果发现 Reprimo基因在胃癌患者的组织和血浆样本中表现出较高的甲基化频率(分别为97.7%和95.3%),在健康对照组的血浆样本中则表现出较低的甲基化频率(9.7%) [ 10] 。因此, Reprimo基因在胃癌患者中高频率的甲基化可作为胃癌早期检测的标志物。由于错配修复基因缺失或失活无法修复自然发生的复制错误,导致出现新的等位基因,即微卫星不稳定(microsatellite instability, MSI)表型或复制错误表型。根据癌症基因组图谱将胃腺癌分为四种分子亚型,其中MSI占22% [ 11] 。在大多数胃癌中,MSI是由于 MLH1启动子的高甲基化造成的 [ 12- 13] 。通过检测60例胃癌患者和22名健康对照者发现, MLH1甲基化的频率为41%,且晚期癌症患者中甲基化水平更高 [ 14] 。一项荟萃分析涉及4654例胃癌患者和3659例非胃癌对照者,结果表明 MLH1启动子甲基化与胃癌患者年龄和MSI呈正相关,MSI胃癌诊断的敏感度和特异度分别为64%和96% [ 15] 。MSI胃癌患者通常在疾病早期被诊断出来,且MSI与存活率提高有关。研究表明 Reprimo和 MLH1基因联合血浆检测胃癌的阳性率高达84% [ 16] 。RUNX3是调节细胞凋亡、细胞生长和血管生成的含runt结构域转录因子家族成员。启动子甲基化导致其失活,从而参与胃癌的发生,RUNX3在约50%的胃癌患者中表达,并且与预后良好相关 [ 13] 。ZIC1(zinc finger of the cerebellum 1)可调节胃癌细胞周期分布和细胞迁移,HODX10(Homeobox D10)可抑制胃癌细胞侵袭。 ZIC1及 HODX10的甲基化分别与血清CA19-9阳性及幽门螺杆菌(Hp)状态有关,且甲基化频率在胃癌患者血液中均较高。有研究检测251例胃癌和癌前病变患者 ZIC1、 HOXD10和 RUNX3的甲基化状态,发现三种基因联合检测筛选早期胃癌及癌前病变的敏感度和特异度分别为91.6%和89.8% [ 17] ,可作为检测胃癌及上皮内瘤变的血清学标志物之一。
越来越多的证据表明,一些肿瘤相关基因的启动子甲基化是一种可以利用体液样本检测癌症的非侵入性的有效生物学标志物,但其诊断作用缺乏定量评估 [ 18- 19] 。为了评估血液样本DNA甲基化诊断胃癌的准确性,一项荟萃分析纳入32项研究的4172例患者(包括2098例胃癌患者和2074名对照) [ 20] ,结果表明DNA甲基化检测胃癌的敏感度为57%,特异度为97%;血浆检测的敏感度为71%、特异度为89%;血清检测的敏感度为50%、特异度为98%;DNA甲基化检测TNMⅠ+Ⅱ期胃癌的敏感度为55%、特异度为96%。胃癌患者组织及血清基因甲基化频率较对照组升高,且DNA甲基化血液检测特异度较高,使用血浆样本可提高诊断敏感度。
除此之外,Hp感染引起的慢性炎症可增加非癌黏膜的甲基化 [ 21] 。因此,基因甲基化不仅可用于胃癌的诊断,也可以用于预测Hp感染所致萎缩性胃炎或肠上皮化生等癌前病变患者发生胃癌的风险。
1.2 长链非编码RNA(lncRNA)
lncRNA是一组长度超过200个核苷酸的非编码RNA,在转录和转录后水平调控多种细胞功能 [ 22] 。外泌体是直径为50~150 nm的囊泡,由多种细胞分泌,能反映其母体细胞的特性,包含多种酶、蛋白质、脂质和RNA,是一种全新的细胞间通信方式。最近研究表明,RNA以外泌体的形式从肿瘤细胞分泌到血液、尿液、唾液等体液中 [ 23] 。外泌体双层膜的稳定性可以保护RNA的稳定性和寿命,是肿瘤非侵袭性诊断的理想选择 [ 24] 。 HOTTIP是HOXA簇的5′尖端转录物,可以通过抑制p21或沉默miRNA来促进细胞增殖。一项研究收集了126例胃癌患者和120名健康受试者的血清标本,结果发现外泌体HOTTIP的表达水平在胃癌患者中明显上调( P < 0.01),且与胃癌的侵袭深度( P < 0.05)和TNM分期( P < 0.001)呈正相关,在最佳临界值1.720时,外泌体HOTTIP诊断胃癌的敏感度和特异度分别为69.8%和85.0% [ 25] 。 LINC00978位于人类基因组2q13,通过激活TGF-β/SMAD途径和诱导上皮间质转化发挥致癌作用。Fu等 [ 26] 研究72对胃癌患者与健康对照者组织和血清以及4种细胞系中 LINC00978表达情况,结果表明 LINC00978在胃癌组织、细胞系中表达均上调,在胃癌患者循环中高度表达,血清中ROC曲线的AUC为0.831(95% CI:0.754~0.908,敏感度为0.80,特异度为0.70)。尽管部分研究提出了lncRNA在早期胃癌诊断中的前景,但目前lncRNA的临床应用还存在一些限制,如lncRNA的生物稳定性、转录水平及转录后修饰的多样化等问题 [ 27] 。
1.3 微小RNA(miRNA, miR)
miRNA是具有21~25个核苷酸的短链非编码RNA,通过与靶基因的3′-UTR直接结合而降解或抑制相应mRNA的翻译。miRNA在细胞增殖、转移、分化、发育和凋亡等过程中起关键作用,miRNA对不同组织类型,甚至同一组织中不同的细胞类型具有特异性。循环中的miRNA由肿瘤组织产生释放到血液中,外泌体可以保护miRNA免受核糖核酸酶的降解,许多研究分析了miRNA在各种癌症类型中的表达模式,并提出miRNA在临床应用中的诊断和预后价值 [ 28] 。miR-21是人类细胞中最早发现和最普遍的miRNA之一,已被用于各种疾病研究,包括心血管疾病和癌症。体内外研究表明,miR-21在胃癌细胞和原发组织中异常表达 [ 29] 。Wu等 [ 30] 检查50例胃癌患者和50名健康对照者血清和外周血单核细胞中的miR-21表达水平,发现胃癌患者miR-21明显升高,血清和外周血单核细胞中miR-21诊断胃癌的敏感度和特异度分别为88.4%、79.6%和81.3%、73.4%,因此,miR-21可作为胃癌诊断的标志物。一项研究收集了67例胃癌患者手术前后的血清样本,结果表明miR-20a表达水平在胃癌患者术前较高而在术后则明显下降,且术前血清表达水平越高预后越差,因此miR-20a可作为胃癌诊断和预后评估的标志物 [ 31] 。虽然miRNA具有较高的敏感度,但RNA的化学不稳定性可能会成为诊断的技术挑战。外泌体可以使循环miRNA与内源性RNA酶隔离,从而增强RNA的稳定性,Wang等 [ 32] 发现,miR-19b-3p和miR106a-5p在胃癌患者血清外泌体中明显升高;随即在90对胃癌与健康对照血清样本中验证两种miRNA的诊断价值,miR-19b-3p和miR106a-5p诊断胃癌的AUC分别为0.769和0.786,而两者联合检测的AUC高达0.814;在20对胃癌患者与健康对照血清样本中进行双盲试验,发现两个指标联合诊断胃癌的敏感度和特异度分别为95%和90%,血清外泌体miRNA可作为胃癌临床诊断的生物标志物。
1.4 环状RNA(circRNA)
环状RNA是一种特殊的非编码RNA分子,其特征为共价闭环结构,无5′-3′极性,也没有多聚腺苷酸的尾巴,不被传统的RNA外切酶降解,且比线性RNA更稳定。同时,环状RNA具有高度保守序列和稳定性 [ 33] ,在临床全血标本中很容易被检测到,使其成为诊断癌症的新型非侵入性生物标志物 [ 34] 。Hsa circ 0001649与胃癌有很强的关联,其相关基因符号是一个名为 SHPRH的肿瘤抑制基因,已经在多种癌症中检测到 SHPRH表达下降。Li等 [ 35] 收集了76例胃癌组织及其相邻非肿瘤组织标本,同时收集20例胃癌患者手术前后的血清标本,结果显示,与对照组相比,胃癌患者血清和胃癌组织样本中circ 0001649均下调( P < 0.01),且与病理分化程度呈负相关,术后血清circ 0001649水平较术前升高,血清circ 0001649作为检测胃癌的标志物,敏感度和特异度分别为71.1%和81.6%。另有研究表明,circ_0000745在胃癌组织和血浆中表达水平下调,且其在胃癌组织中的表达水平与肿瘤分化程度呈负相关;通过检测60对胃癌患者与健康对照者血清表达水平发现,血浆中circ_0000745的表达水平与TNM分期呈负相关,血清circ_0000745诊断胃癌的AUC为0.683,敏感度和特异度分别为85.5%和45%,其与血清癌胚抗原(CEA)联合检测诊断价值更高,AUC可达0.775,敏感度和特异度分别为80%和63.3% [ 36] ,两项指标联合可作为潜在的胃癌血清学标志物。
相对于基因序列的改变,表观遗传学修饰的改变是可逆的,更容易调控。基于血清学检测的便捷以及非侵袭性优点,血清学检测表观遗传学改变可能会成为胃癌早期诊断的最有前景的生物标志物之一,尤其是CpG岛的高甲基化和胃癌特异的miRNA。
2 胃癌早期诊断的蛋白质组学标志物
2.1 胃特异性标志物
血清胃蛋白酶原(pepsinogen, PG)作为胃黏膜萎缩的一个指标,可以反映胃黏膜的功能和形态。PGⅠ由胃底黏膜的主细胞和颈黏液细胞产生,PGⅡ由胃贲门、胃底、窦和十二指肠近端分泌,萎缩程度越重,PGⅠ/PGⅡ比值(PGR)越低 [ 37] 。目前广泛接受的标准值为PGⅠ≤70 μg/L和PGR≤3,其在胃癌筛查中的敏感度和特异度分别为84.6%和73.5%,阳性预测率为81%,阴性预测率为99.9% [ 38] 。关于PGR是诊断萎缩性胃炎一种敏感的特异性标志物已达成共识,但PG标准值的界定以及不同PG指标的诊断价值目前仍有争议,需要更大样本量的队列研究进一步调查,确定最佳的标准值。
胃泌素(gastrin, G)在血液循环中具有生物活性的成分主要有大分子G34和小分子G17,其中G17占胃泌素总量的90%以上,一项研究将其研究对象分为健康胃、非萎缩胃、萎缩胃、胃肿瘤。结果表明,随着组织病理学逐渐进展,G17水平呈逐渐增加的趋势。G17用于区分胃部有无病变的最佳标准值为3.0 pmol/L,区别胃癌和无癌胃的最佳标准值为10.7 pmol/L,诊断胃体部癌症的准确性更高 [ 39] 。影响G17水平的因素很多,国外研究确定的诊断标准值在中国的临床应用中尚缺乏足够依据。在慢性胃炎中,胃体萎缩者血清胃泌素G17水平升高,PGⅠ或PGR降低;胃窦萎缩者,G17降低,PGⅠ或PGR正常;全胃萎缩者则两者均降低。因此,血清胃泌素G17、PGⅠ和PGⅡ有助于判断胃黏膜有无萎缩和萎缩部位。
2.2 与胃癌相关的环境因子
Hp感染和慢性萎缩性胃炎(CAG)可以分别通过血清中Hp抗体以及PG水平来反映,这两种检查每一单项都可以看作胃癌风险的预测指标。但是严重的CAG会降低Hp抗体的滴度或在仅有Hp感染而无CAG存在的情况下血清PG检查为阴性,这就限制了这两项检查单独应用的价值。因此,一种称为“ABC法”的标准应运而生,即结合血清PG和Hp抗体反映慢性胃炎的程度,这种方法在日本被应用于胃癌的大规模筛查 [ 40] 。PGⅠ≤70 ng/mL且PGR≤3为PG阳性,Hp抗体滴度≥10 U/mL为Hp阳性,根据胃癌和癌前病变的风险将患者分为以下四组:A组(Hp阴性PG阴性)、B组(Hp阳性PG阴性)、C组(Hp阳性PG阳性)、D组(Hp阴性PG阳性),分别表示无HP感染的健康者、没有CAG的Hp感染者、Hp诱导的CAG患者以及有广泛的CAG和肠上皮化生的患者。多变量荟萃分析表明,A组风险较其他组低,B组风险较C组和D组低,C组和D组胃癌累积发生率差异无统计学意义,表明CAG发生胃癌的风险与Hp感染血清阳性或阴性无明显关系 [ 41] ,ABC法目前已经用于胃癌的人群筛查,但敏感度和特异度还有待进一步提高。有研究表明ABC法可用于预测胃癌组织分型,但需要注意的是,虽然A组患者胃癌发生率极低,仍有部分患者进展为胃癌,且组织分化较差,恶性程度高 [ 42] 。
2.3 不具有器官特异性的肿瘤相关标志物
CA72-4是一种糖蛋白抗原,在胃癌中特异度较高 [ 43] 。对于单项指标而言,CA72-4的敏感度最高,为93.83%,CA19-9的特异度最高,为95.9%。Kucera等 [ 44] 认为肿瘤标志物CEA和CA72-4是胃癌诊断的最佳个体标志物,但是由于单指标敏感度低,用于早期发现胃癌的价值有限,多指标联合检测可以提高诊断准确性。Liang等 [ 45] 利用多元逻辑回归分析得到一个判别方程,以确定患者是否患有胃癌。此判别方程为:Y=-2.185-0.015X 1+0.180X 2+1.226X 3+1.505X 4+2.749X 5(X 1=年龄,X 2=性别,X 3=CEA,X 4=CA19-9,X 5=CA72-4),Y>0.5为胃癌组。该研究进一步在343例胃癌患者和280名健康对照者或胃良性病变者中进行验证,得该方程的敏感度、特异度、阳性预测值、阴性预测值分别为93.59%、82.5%、86.76%和91.3%,准确度为88.60%,价值高于CA72-4、CA19-9、CEA等三项指标的组合 [ 45] 。
已有研究表明,嗜中性粒细胞-淋巴细胞比(NLR)和血小板-淋巴细胞比(PLR)与肿瘤分期和侵袭深度有关,NLR同时具有预后价值 [ 46] 。一项国内的研究探讨NLR、PLR、CEA联合诊断胃癌的价值,将其对象分为胃癌组(201位)、良性病变组(161位)以及健康对照组(157位),结果表明胃癌组NLR和PLR比良性病变组以及健康对照组高得多(均 P<0.01),但NLR和PLR在良性病变组和健康对照组之间差异无统计学意义。PLR与CEA联合(AUC为0.780)或NLR与CEA联合(AUC为0.756)的AUC大于单独使用NLR、PLR或CEA时的AUC [ 47] 。
研究发现,胃癌组织中骨桥蛋白(OPN)的表达明显高于正常胃组织,同时血清OPN水平也升高,血清OPN的表达与胃癌和萎缩性胃炎的风险密切相关 [ 48] 。研究招募了1452例患者,分为浅表性胃炎(609例)、萎缩性胃炎(594例)和胃癌(249例)三组,探讨OPN水平与胃癌及其癌前病变之间的关系,结果发现OPN鉴别胃癌的敏感度和特异度分别为74.3%和71.8% [ 49] 。
MG7-Ag是一种胃癌特异性肿瘤相关抗原,在血清和胃癌组织中呈高水平表达。一项荟萃分析纳入7项研究的648例胃癌患者和3895名健康对照者,分析表明MG7-Ag用于鉴别胃癌和胃部良性疾病的敏感度和特异度分别为73%(95% CI:0.63~0.82)和91%(95% CI:0.84~0.94) [ 50] 。Zhang等 [ 51] 研究了MG7-Ag在胃癌高风险人群中的筛查价值,对2710例接受过胃镜检查的对象进行血清学检验,发现在浅表胃炎、慢性萎缩性胃炎、肠上皮化生、不完全性异型增生和异型增生的患者中,血清MG7-Ag阳性的比例为3.00%~5.61%,低于胃癌患者(77.50%, P < 0.01),MG7-Ag检测胃癌的敏感度和特异度分别为77.5%和95.6%。因此,MG7-Ag是一种敏感和特异的血清生物学标志物,在高危人群中具有筛查胃癌的潜力。
有研究探讨三类蛋白质组学标志物联合检测在胃癌诊断中的价值,对PGⅠ、PGⅡ、HpAb和OPN浓度进行分类,以分析这些指标与胃癌风险的关联。结果表明三类生物学标志物组合提高了胃癌的诊断准确率,其敏感度为70.2%,特异度为78.3%,远优于生物学标志物一联或二联使用 [ 52] 。PGⅠ、PGⅡ、PGR、Hp抗体、G17可用于鉴定胃癌高风险个体和预测胃癌发生风险,以便进一步行胃镜检查;肿瘤相关标志物水平异常表明可能存在恶性肿瘤,但不具有器官特异性。
3 展望
肿瘤标志物被广泛应用于早期筛查、诊断、预后评估、疗效和肿瘤复发监测。理想的肿瘤标志物具有较高的敏感度和特异度,具有可靠的检测方法,然而,目前还没有理想的胃癌标志物。蛋白质组学标志物被广泛用于临床,可为胃癌的诊断提供一定的价值,但其诊断的敏感度和特异度较低,诊断胃癌的准确性较低。基因甲基化可用于胃癌的诊断,预测癌前病变发展为胃癌的风险;miRNA具有组织及细胞特异性,且敏感度和特异度优于传统的蛋白质组学标志物。Hp感染可能会增加某些miRNA基因的甲基化水平,而异常的DNA甲基化导致胃癌的发生 [ 53] ,寻找某一类胃癌特异的miRNA和DNA甲基化是比较有前景的早期诊断和筛查方法。
Funding Statement
国家自然科学基金(81602516);浙江省自然科学基金(LY17H160022)
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