Skip to main content
Journal of Zhejiang University (Medical Sciences) logoLink to Journal of Zhejiang University (Medical Sciences)
. 2019 Jun 25;48(3):303–309. [Article in Chinese] doi: 10.3785/j.issn.1008-9292.2019.06.11

癫痫鼠外周血磷酸化S6蛋白检测及意义

Correlation of phosphorylated S6 protein expression in blood and brain tissue in mice and rats with kainic acid-induced seizure

Miao FAN 1, Shuminin DONG 1, Xinyi ZOU 1, Boyuan ZHENG 1, Yurun HUANG 1, Jianda WANG 2,*, Linghui ZENG 1,*
PMCID: PMC8800752  PMID: 31496163

Abstract

Objective

To determine the correlation of phosphorylated ribosomal S6 protein (P-S6) content in blood and brain tissue in mice and rats with seizure.

Methods

Seizure models were induced by intraperitoric injection of kainic acid (KA) in C57BL/mice and SD rats. Flow cytometry was used to detect the content of P-S6 in blood; Western blot was used to detect the expression of P-S6 in brain tissues. The correlation between P-S6 expression in blood and in brain tissue was examine by Pearson analysis, and the correlation between P-S6 expression in blood and the severity of seizure was also observed.

Results

Western blotting analysis showed that the expression of P-S6 was significantly increased in peripheral blood and brain tissue in mice 1 h after KA-induced seizure, and the expression levels increased to (1.49±0.45) times ( P < 0.05) and (2.55±0.66) times ( P < 0.01) of the control group, respectively. Flow cytometry showed that the positive percentage and average fluorescence intensity of P-S6 in the blood of mice increased significantly 1 h after KA-induced seizures ( P < 0.01), which was consistent with the expression of P-S6 in brain tissue ( r=0.8474, P < 0.01). Flow cytometry showed that the average fluorescence intensity of P-S6 in blood increased from 14.89±9.75 to 52.35±21.72 ( P < 0.01) in rats with seizure, which was consistent with the change of P-S6 in brain tissue ( r=0.9385, P < 0.01). Rats with higher levels of seizure were of higher levels of P-S6 in peripheral blood.

Conclusion

Consistent correlation of P-S6 expression is demonstrated in peripheral blood and in brain tissue after KA-induced seizure, suggesting that the expression of P-S6 in blood can accurately reflect the changes of mTOR signaling pathway in brain tissue.

Keywords: Epilepsy/pathology; Epilepsy/blood; Brain/anatomy & histology; Protein kinases/physiology; Phosphoprotein phosphatases/metabolism; Flow cytometry; Disease models, animal


哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白(mTOR)是进化上保守的丝氨酸/苏氨酸激酶,是磷脂酰肌醇-3-激酶(PI3K)相关激酶家族的一个成员。mTOR信号通路参与调节机体许多重要生理功能。mTOR激酶以与其他蛋白组成复合物的形式作为关键分子,形成mTOR复合物1(mTORC1)和mTOR复合物2(mTORC2)。其中,mTORC1主要调节细胞生长、增殖和蛋白质合成,而mTORC2调节细胞组织骨架和参与细胞周期的进程。当mTOR激酶的上游信号如PI3K、蛋白激酶B(Akt)激活时,能够解除结节性硬化(tuberous sclerosis complex, TSC)1/2复合物对mTOR的抑制,从而激活mTOR及其下游分子,使得核糖体蛋白S6磷酸化并产生一系列生化效应。因此,S6磷酸化(ribosomal S6 protein phosphorylation,P-S6)水平常被用作mTOR激活的替代标志物 [ 1] 。在神经系统中,mTOR信号通路影响神经元和胶质细胞的分化、迁移,树突和轴突的再生及突触的形成,在大脑的发育过程中扮演重要角色 [ 2] 。此外,mTOR信号通路可以通过调控一些离子通道及受体的表达直接或间接影响神经元的兴奋性 [ 3- 4]

mTOR信号通路在癫痫中的作用已有诸多报道。基因突变致mTOR信号通路过度活化所引起的一些综合征中往往伴随着难治性癫痫的发作,如TSC、皮层发育不良、巨脑回畸形、神经节胶质细胞瘤等,这类癫痫被统称为“mTORopathies”相关性癫痫 [ 5- 6] 。已有研究发现,使用mTOR抑制剂可以缓解 Tsc1 GFAP条件性基因敲除小鼠癫痫发作 [ 7- 8] 。另外,在 Tsc1 GFAPTsc2 GFAP条件性敲除小鼠中发现早期使用雷帕霉素治疗能够预防癫痫的发生并提高小鼠存活率,而停用mTOR抑制剂可导致癫痫复发 [ 9] 。临床研究亦报道了一例10岁TSC患儿对多种抗癫痫药物耐受,但在接受雷帕霉素治疗10个月后癫痫发作频率急剧下降 [ 10] 。以上结果提示,mTOR信号通路的表达状态可作为癫痫病情控制水平的指征。因此,寻找切实可行的mTOR信号通路表达状态的检测方法,有望提高mTOR相关性癫痫的诊疗水平。

本研究通过流式细胞术检测小鼠和大鼠在红藻氨酸致痫前后外周血中mTOR信号通路下游P-S6表达的变化,并与脑组织P-S6表达变化做相关性分析,探究脑组织内mTOR信号通路的改变能否在外周血中得以反映。

1 材料与方法

1.1 实验动物和试剂

出生后5~6周龄的C57BL/6小鼠30只和SD大鼠22只购自上海斯莱克实验动物有限责任公司,实验动物使用许可证号为SCXK(沪)2017-0005。动物实验及相关处理严格参照浙江大学实验动物中心管理委员会的规定执行。动物的饲养条件为温度(24±1)℃,湿度40%~60%,昼、夜各12 h。

细胞裂解液10×为美国BD公司产品;S6、P-S6、β-actin、P-S6 Ser235/236 Alexa 647、Rabbit(DA1E) mAb IgG XP ® Isotype Control(Alexa Fluor 647 Conjugate)抗体为美国Cell Signaling Technology公司产品;4%多聚甲醛为南京碧云天生物技术有限公司产品。

1.2 动物模型的建立和分组

C57BL/6小鼠和SD大鼠分别采用红藻氨酸23、13 mg/kg腹腔注射诱导癫痫发作。观察并记录其急性痫性发作等级及发作持续时间。癫痫发作等级参照1972年Racine制订的标准:1级为静止不动伴随有嘴部/面部运动;2级为点头及落水狗样抖动;3级为前肢痉挛;4级为竖立、全身僵硬;5级为竖立并跌倒;6级为狂奔、尖叫、浑身剧烈颤抖。选取癫痫等级在4级及以上的动物模型,且连续癫痫行为后1 h方可进行下一步实验。如果动物未能达到4级癫痫,则再腹腔注射原剂量的1/3,直到癫痫等级达到4级及以上。但在三次补药后仍未达到4级及以上发作等级,则不计入模型组。

C57BL/6小鼠和SD大鼠随机分为对照组和模型组,小鼠对照组12只,模型组18只,大鼠对照组6只,模型组16只。小鼠模型组按以上方法进行造模,癫痫发作等级达4级及以上的共12只,分别取外周血和大脑海马组织进行流式细胞术和蛋白质印迹法的检测;大鼠分别取造模前后的外周血进行检测,并将对照组和模型组癫痫发作等级达4级及以上的大鼠脑海马组织进行蛋白质印迹法检测。

1.3 蛋白质印迹法检测脑组织和外周血中P-S6表达

实验动物经眼眶取血,经1×裂解液破裂红细胞后,用PBS洗去红细胞碎片;然后处死动物取大脑海马组织,用超声波粉碎仪裂解后离心取上清液,将处理后的血液和组织用BCA法测定蛋白质浓度。蛋白经SDS-PAGE分离和转膜后,采用5%脱脂牛奶室温封闭,封闭完成后分别使用相应抗体孵育,使用化学发光法曝光,最后用ImageJ软件分析其灰度,计算磷酸化蛋白与总蛋白或β-actin的比值。

1.4 流式细胞术检测外周血中P-S6表达

C57BL/6小鼠眼眶取血400~500 μL后放入经37 ℃水浴锅预热的1×红细胞裂解液中,上下颠倒数次混匀后,室温静置;用PBS-FBS清洗两次,离心留细胞沉淀后加4%多聚甲醛室温进行细胞固定,再用终浓度为90%的冰甲醇冰上破膜40 min;破膜结束后,在样品管和同型对照管中分别加入抗体P-S6 Ser235/236 Alexa 647和Rabbit(DA1E) mAb IgG XP Isotype Control,室温避光孵育60 min,采用流式细胞仪检测P-S6浓度。

SD大鼠造模前后分别眼眶取血400~500 μL,其余步骤与小鼠外周血的流式细胞术处理方法相同。

1.5 统计学方法

采用SPSS 18.0软件进行数据统计分析。实验数据采用均数±标准差( x ± s)表示,多组间比较用单因素方差分析,组间两两比较采用LSD检验,相关性分析采用Pearson分析, P < 0.05为差异有统计学意义。

2 结果

2.1 小鼠外周血和脑组织中P-S6蛋白的变化具有一致性

蛋白质印迹法检测结果显示,与对照组比较,癫痫模型小鼠的外周血和大脑海马组织中的P-S6蛋白含量均明显升高,表达量分别升高至对照组的(1.49±0.45)倍( P < 0.05)和(2.55±0.66)倍( P < 0.01),见 图 1。结果提示,癫痫小鼠外周血和脑组织中mTOR信号通路被激活,但大脑海马组织中的P-S6蛋白含量相比于外周血增加更多。

图1.

图1

癫痫小鼠外周血和脑组织中磷酸化S6蛋白电泳条带( n=6)

流式细胞术检测结果显示,与对照组比较,癫痫模型小鼠外周血中P-S6蛋白的阳性表达率和平均荧光强度明显升高,阳性表达率从(7.0±5.1)%升高至(27.3±14.1)%,平均荧光强度由23.7±20.5升高至100.7±63.5(均 P < 0.01),见 图 2

图2.

图2

癫痫小鼠外周血磷酸化S6蛋白流式细胞术检测结果( n=12)

将小鼠外周血中P-S6蛋白流式细胞术检测结果与大脑海马组织中P-S6蛋白含量进行相关性分析,发现两者具有高度相关性( r=0.8474, P < 0.01), 见 图 3。结果提示,癫痫小鼠外周血中P-S6蛋白含量的变化可以反映其在大脑海马组织中的变化。

图3.

图3

癫痫小鼠脑组织与外周血中磷酸化S6蛋白表达水平的相关性

2.2 大鼠外周血和脑组织中P-S6蛋白的变化具有一致性

与造模前比较,致痫后大鼠外周血中的P-S6蛋白含量由14.89±9.75升高至52.35±21.72( P < 0.01)。同时,在大脑海马组织中,模型组P-S6蛋白含量也明显增高,为对照组的(2.61±0.41)倍( P < 0.01),见 图 4。相关性分析结果显示,大鼠外周血P-S6蛋白表达与脑组织P-S6蛋白表达高度相关( r=0.9385, P < 0.01),见 图 5。结果提示,癫痫大鼠外周血中P-S6蛋白的变化能较好地反映其在大脑海马组织中的变化。

图4.

癫痫大鼠外周血和脑组织中磷酸化S6蛋白含量变化( n=10)

A:外周血磷酸化S6蛋白流式细胞图;B:大脑海马组织磷酸化S6蛋白电泳条带图.

图4

图5.

图5

癫痫大鼠脑组织与外周血中磷酸化S6蛋白表达水平的相关性

2.3 大鼠外周血P-S6蛋白的表达与癫痫发作等级相关

将流式细胞术检测得到外周血P-S6蛋白的表达按癫痫发作等级进行归类,结果见 图 6。与造模前比较,癫痫的发作等级越高,外周血中P-S6蛋白的含量越高。其中, 当癫痫发作等级小于4级时,其外周血中P-S6的相对表达量与造模前相比无明显差异,而癫痫发作达4、5级时,其外周血中P-S6的相对表达量明显增加(均 P < 0.01),提示外周血P-S6蛋白表达水平与癫痫发作严重程度有关。

图6.

癫痫大鼠不同癫痫发作等级外周血磷酸化S6蛋白含量的变化( n=16)

与造模前比较, ** P < 0.01.

图6

3 讨论

在细胞生长发育、细胞内信号传导和代谢的过程中,磷酸化是一种能有效调节蛋白质功能的方法。蛋白质可以通过蛋白质激酶和磷酸酶实现磷酸化和去磷酸化功能的相互转化。在蛋白质磷酸化的过程中出现过度活化或者失活都有可能打破原本的平衡。有研究显示,人类许多疾病都与蛋白质的磷酸化程度密切相关,因此磷酸化蛋白也是探究包括癫痫在内诸多疾病奥秘的热点之一。蛋白质印迹法是经典的蛋白含量检测方法,但是由于所需蛋白质的量较大且检测过程繁琐,不适合作为外周血磷酸化蛋白的常规检测方法。近年来,流式细胞术也开始运用于定量分析磷酸化蛋白表达的功能。吕合作等 [ 11] 在用佛波醇酯及植物血凝素刺激Jurkat细胞后,利用流式细胞术分析单细胞水平磷酸化蛋白酪氨酸激酶(PTK)的磷酸化状态;Perl等 [ 1] 取外周血在体外经佛波酯刺激后,运用流式细胞术检测mTOR抑制剂治疗的白血病患者中磷酸化蛋白的表达情况。本文运用流式细胞术对癫痫大鼠和小鼠外周血的P-S6蛋白表达进行检测分析。但目前流式细胞术用于检测磷酸化蛋白的研究较少且多数用于血液系统疾病,为了更好地保留磷酸化蛋白的抗原结合位点,本研究在破膜透化细胞这一步骤中使用4 ℃预冷的100%甲醇。流式细胞术检测大鼠和小鼠外周血磷酸化蛋白的结果发现,致痫1 h后模型组外周血P-S6的含量明显高于对照组,与大脑海马组织中P-S6的表达具有相同的趋势,表明流式细胞术检测外周血中P-S6的表达是一种快速可靠的检测方法,避免了蛋白质印迹法耗时长、不够灵敏等缺点,能快速、灵敏地检测外周血P-S6的变化。

癫痫已经发展为影响全世界超过7000万人的严重神经系统疾病,其中三分之一的患者发展为难治性癫痫 [ 12] 。癫痫的病灶主要集中于脑部,因而脑组织为癫痫研究的重要对象。Chen等 [ 13] 通过液体冲击脑损伤模型模拟脑部受伤产生的癫痫,发现脑组织中mTOR信号通路激活,同时将下游分子4E-BP1、S6K、S6磷酸化。我们课题组及其他多个课题组的研究已发现在TSC、神经节胶质细胞瘤等难治性癫痫患者中均存在mTOR信号通路的过度激活,反映在其下游的P-S6表达升高 [ 5, 14] 。此外,也有较多动物及临床研究表明,一些基因突变可直接或间接导致mTOR信号通路的过度激活并导致癫痫发生,包括 TSC1TSC2PTENAKT3PI3KMTORSTRADαNPRL2NPRL3DEPDC5BRAF[ 14- 21] ,且下游的S6、S6K等分子磷酸化。这些癫痫在脑组织中能通过P-S6表达升高来反映mTOR信号通路的激活,但检测外周血中P-S6的变化相比于脑组织的检测对于亟待治疗的患者更切实可行。因此本研究通过红藻氨酸致痫动物模型模拟mTOR相关性的难治性癫痫,通过流式细胞术快速检测外周血中mTOR信号通路下游P-S6的含量来探究外周血和脑组织P-S6的相关性。

本研究结果显示,通过流式细胞术检测实验动物和外周血P-S6蛋白以及用免疫蛋白印迹法检测实验动物脑组织P-S6蛋白水平的含量,发现两者出现相同的变化趋势,且具有高度相关性。为了排除种属的差异并对流式细胞术检测的敏感性作进一步确认,我们用流式细胞术检测同一只大鼠造模前后P-S6的含量,得到了与小鼠类似结果,表明外周血P-S6表达能够反映癫痫动物脑组织mTOR信号通路的激活情况,并且与癫痫发作等级相关。另外,流式细胞术检测结果中还发现P-S6在单个核细胞的区域增加比较明显。有研究在半侧巨脑症患者的脑组织切片中发现,P-S6在小胶质细胞和巨噬细胞中都有表达,而在多发性骨髓瘤的外周血中P-S6在肿瘤细胞和单核细胞中表达较多 [ 22- 23] 。因而P-S6具体在癫痫鼠外周血的哪一细胞亚群表达升高有待进一步探索和研究。

综上所述,在癫痫鼠模型中,mTOR信号通路激活导致下游P-S6蛋白含量的增加能在外周血中得到反映,脑组织和外周血中mTOR信号通路的变化具有高度相关性,有助于今后mTOR相关性癫痫的病情及临床用药监控思路形成。

Funding Statement

杭州市重大科技创新项目(20152013A02);国家自然科学基金(81600988)

References

  • 1.PERL A E, KASNER M T, SHANK D, et al. Single-cell pharmacodynamic monitoring of S6 ribosomal protein phosphorylation in AML blasts during a clinical trial combining the mTOR inhibitor sirolimus and intensive chemotherapy. Clin Cancer Res. 2012;18(6):1716–1725. doi: 10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-11-2346. [PERL A E, KASNER M T, SHANK D, et al. Single-cell pharmacodynamic monitoring of S6 ribosomal protein phosphorylation in AML blasts during a clinical trial combining the mTOR inhibitor sirolimus and intensive chemotherapy[J]. Clin Cancer Res, 2012, 18(6):1716-1725.] [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 2.LEE D Y. Roles of mTOR signaling in brain development. Exp Neurobiol. 2015;24(3):177–185. doi: 10.5607/en.2015.24.3.177. [LEE D Y. Roles of mTOR signaling in brain development[J]. Exp Neurobiol, 2015, 24(3):177-185.] [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 3.HUANG X, MCMAHON J, YANG J, et al. Rapamycin down-regulates KCC2 expression and increases seizure susceptibility to convulsants in immature rats. Neuroscience. 2012;219:33–47. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.05.003. [HUANG X, MCMAHON J, YANG J, et al. Rapamycin down-regulates KCC2 expression and increases seizure susceptibility to convulsants in immature rats[J]. Neuroscience, 2012, 219:33-47.] [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 4.LOZOVAYA N, GATAULLINA S, TSINTSADZE T, et al. Selective suppression of excessive GluN2C expression rescues early epilepsy in a tuberous sclerosis murine model. Nat Commun. 2014;5:4563. doi: 10.1038/ncomms5563. [LOZOVAYA N, GATAULLINA S, TSINTSADZE T, et al. Selective suppression of excessive GluN2C expression rescues early epilepsy in a tuberous sclerosis murine model[J]. Nat Commun, 2014, 5:4563.] [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 5.MANNING B D. Game of TOR-the target of rapamycin rules four kingdoms. N Engl J Med. 2017;377(13):1297–1299. doi: 10.1056/NEJMcibr1709384. [MANNING B D. Game of TOR-the target of rapamycin rules four kingdoms[J]. N Engl J Med, 2017, 377(13):1297-1299.] [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 6.CITRARO R, LEO A, CONSTANTI A, et al. mTOR pathway inhibition as a new therapeutic strategy in epilepsy and epileptogenesis. Pharmacol Res. 2016;107:333–343. doi: 10.1016/j.phrs.2016.03.039. [CITRARO R, LEO A, CONSTANTI A, et al. mTOR pathway inhibition as a new therapeutic strategy in epilepsy and epileptogenesis[J]. Pharmacol Res, 2016, 107:333-343.] [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 7.SUN A, LI C, CHEN R, et al. GSK-3β controls autophagy by modulating LKB1-AMPK pathway in prostate cancer cells. Prostate. 2016;76(2):172–183. doi: 10.1002/pros.23106. [SUN A, LI C, CHEN R, et al. GSK-3β controls autophagy by modulating LKB1-AMPK pathway in prostate cancer cells[J]. Prostate, 2016, 76(2):172-183.] [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 8.MEIKLE L, POLLIZZI K, EGNOR A, et al. Response of a neuronal model of tuberous sclerosis to mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitors:effects on mTORC1 and Akt signaling lead to improved survival and function. J Neurosci. 2008;28(21):5422–5432. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0955-08.2008. [MEIKLE L, POLLIZZI K, EGNOR A, et al. Response of a neuronal model of tuberous sclerosis to mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitors:effects on mTORC1 and Akt signaling lead to improved survival and function[J]. J Neurosci, 2008, 28(21):5422-5432.] [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 9.ZENG L H, RENSING N R, ZHANG B, et al. Tsc2 gene inactivation causes a more severe epilepsy phenotype than Tsc1 inactivation in a mouse model of tuberous sclerosis complex. Hum Mol Genet. 2011;20(3):445–454. doi: 10.1093/hmg/ddq491. [ZENG L H, RENSING N R, ZHANG B, et al. Tsc2 gene inactivation causes a more severe epilepsy phenotype than Tsc1 inactivation in a mouse model of tuberous sclerosis complex[J]. Hum Mol Genet, 2011, 20(3):445-454.] [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 10.MUNCY J, BUTLER I J, Koenig M K. Rapamycin reduces seizure frequency in tuberous sclerosis complex. J Child Neurol. 2009;24(4):477. doi: 10.1177/0883073808324535. [MUNCY J, BUTLER I J, Koenig M K. Rapamycin reduces seizure frequency in tuberous sclerosis complex[J]. J Child Neurol, 2009, 24(4):477.] [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 11.吕 合作, 李 柏青. 胞内磷酸化蛋白酪氨酸激酶的流式细胞术检测. 蚌埠医学院学报. 2005;30(2):95–97. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1000-2200.2005.02.001. [吕合作, 李柏青.胞内磷酸化蛋白酪氨酸激酶的流式细胞术检测[J].蚌埠医学院学报, 2005, 30(2):95-97.] [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 12.WALKER L E, FRIGERIO F, RAVIZZA T, et al. Molecular isoforms of high-mobility group box 1 are mechanistic biomarkers for epilepsy. J Clin Invest. 2017;127(6):2118–2132. doi: 10.1172/JCI92001. [WALKER L E, FRIGERIO F, RAVIZZA T, et al. Molecular isoforms of high-mobility group box 1 are mechanistic biomarkers for epilepsy[J]. J Clin Invest, 2017, 127(6):2118-2132.] [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] [Retracted]
  • 13.CHEN S, ATKINS C M, LIU C L, et al. Alterations in mammalian target of rapamycin signaling pathways after traumatic brain injury. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2007;27(5):939–949. doi: 10.1038/sj.jcbfm.9600393. [CHEN S, ATKINS C M, LIU C L, et al. Alterations in mammalian target of rapamycin signaling pathways after traumatic brain injury[J]. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab, 2007, 27(5):939-949.] [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 14.ZENG L H, XU L, GUTMANN D H, et al. Rapamycin prevents epilepsy in a mouse model of tuberous sclerosis complex. Ann Neurol. 2008;63(4):444–453. doi: 10.1002/ana.21331. [ZENG L H, XU L, GUTMANN D H, et al. Rapamycin prevents epilepsy in a mouse model of tuberous sclerosis complex[J]. Ann Neurol, 2008, 63(4):444-453.] [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 15.ZENG L H, RENSING N R, ZHANG B, et al. Tsc2 gene inactivation causes a more severe epilepsy phenotype than Tsc1 inactivation in a mouse model of tuberous sclerosis complex. Hum Mol Genet. 2011;20(3):445–454. doi: 10.1093/hmg/ddq491. [ZENG L H, RENSING N R, ZHANG B, et al. Tsc2 gene inactivation causes a more severe epilepsy phenotype than Tsc1 inactivation in a mouse model of tuberous sclerosis complex[J]. Hum Mol Genet, 2011, 20(3):445-454.] [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 16.MCMAHON J, HUANG X, YANG J, et al. Impaired autophagy in neurons after disinhibition of mammalian target of rapamycin and its contribution to epileptogenesis. J Neurosci. 2012;32(45):15704–15714. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2392-12.2012. [MCMAHON J, HUANG X, YANG J, et al. Impaired autophagy in neurons after disinhibition of mammalian target of rapamycin and its contribution to epileptogenesis[J]. J Neurosci, 2012, 32(45):15704-15714.] [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 17.LEE J H, HUYNH M, SILHAVY J L, et al. De novo somatic mutations in components of the PI3K-AKT3-mTOR pathway cause hemimegalencephaly. Nat Genet. 2012;44(8):941–945. doi: 10.1038/ng.2329. [LEE J H, HUYNH M, SILHAVY J L, et al. De novo somatic mutations in components of the PI3K-AKT3-mTOR pathway cause hemimegalencephaly[J]. Nat Genet, 2012, 44(8):941-945.] [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 18.LIM J S, KIM W I, KANG H C, et al. Brain somatic mutations in MTOR cause focal cortical dysplasia type Ⅱ leading to intractable epilepsy. Nat Med. 2015;21(4):395–400. doi: 10.1038/nm.3824. [LIM J S, KIM W I, KANG H C, et al. Brain somatic mutations in MTOR cause focal cortical dysplasia type Ⅱ leading to intractable epilepsy[J]. Nat Med, 2015, 21(4):395-400.] [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 19.ORLOVA K A, PARKER W E, HEUER G G, et al. STRADalpha deficiency results in aberrant mTORC1 signaling during corticogenesis in humans and mice. J Clin Invest. 2010;120(5):1591–1602. doi: 10.1172/JCI41592. [ORLOVA K A, PARKER W E, HEUER G G, et al. STRADalpha deficiency results in aberrant mTORC1 signaling during corticogenesis in humans and mice[J]. J Clin Invest, 2010, 120(5):1591-1602.] [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 20.BALDASSARI S, LICCHETTA L, TINUPER P, et al. GATOR1 complex:the common genetic actor in focal epilepsies. J Med Genet. 2016;53(8):503–510. doi: 10.1136/jmedgenet-2016-103883. [BALDASSARI S, LICCHETTA L, TINUPER P, et al. GATOR1 complex:the common genetic actor in focal epilepsies[J]. J Med Genet, 2016, 53(8):503-510.] [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 21.ZHANG Y X, SHEN C H, GUO Y, et al. BRAF V600E mutation in epilepsy-associated glioneuronal tumors:Prevalence and correlation with clinical features in a Chinese population. Seizure. 2017;45:102–106. doi: 10.1016/j.seizure.2016.12.004. [ZHANG Y X, SHEN C H, GUO Y, et al. BRAF V600E mutation in epilepsy-associated glioneuronal tumors:Prevalence and correlation with clinical features in a Chinese population[J]. Seizure, 2017, 45:102-106.] [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 22.LI C, TAKAHASHI C, ZHANG L, et al. Development of a robust flow cytometry-based pharmacodynamic assay to detect phospho-protein signals for phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitors in multiple myeloma. J Transl Med. 2013;11:76. doi: 10.1186/1479-5876-11-76. [LI C, TAKAHASHI C, ZHANG L, et al. Development of a robust flow cytometry-based pharmacodynamic assay to detect phospho-protein signals for phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitors in multiple myeloma[J]. J Transl Med, 2013, 11:76.] [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 23.NONODA Y, SAITO Y, ITOH M, et al. Activation of microglia/macrophages expressing phosphorylated S6 ribosomal protein in a case of hemimegalencephaly with progressive calcification and atrophy. J Neurol Sci. 2009;287(1-2):52–59. doi: 10.1016/j.jns.2009.09.010. [NONODA Y, SAITO Y, ITOH M, et al. Activation of microglia/macrophages expressing phosphorylated S6 ribosomal protein in a case of hemimegalencephaly with progressive calcification and atrophy[J]. J Neurol Sci, 2009, 287(1-2):52-59.] [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Journal of Zhejiang University (Medical Sciences) are provided here courtesy of Zhejiang University Press

RESOURCES