Abstract
支气管肺发育不良(bronchopulmonary dysplasia,BPD)是一种因早产儿肺发育受阻和损伤而导致的慢性肺疾病,是造成早产儿呼吸衰竭的主要病因之一。合并BPD的早产儿其他并发症发生率和病死率显著高于一般早产儿。目前主要通过综合管理对BPD进行干预,包括合理的呼吸循环支持,恰当的肠内、外营养,咖啡因、糖皮质激素及肺表面活性物质等药物的应用和出院后的院外管理。近年来干细胞医学的不断进展为治疗BPD提供了新的思路。多项临床前试验已证实干细胞治疗在有效避免肺损伤的同时促进肺的生长和损伤修复。因此,该文对间充质干细胞治疗BPD的作用机制进行全面分析,以期为临床应用提供依据。
Keywords: 支气管肺发育不良, 旁分泌, 细胞外囊泡, 间充质干细胞, 早产儿
Abstract
Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) is a chronic lung disease due to impaired pulmonary development and is one of the main causes of respiratory failure in preterm infants. Preterm infants with BPD have significantly higher complication and mortality rates than those without BPD. At present, comprehensive management is the main intervention method for BPD, including reasonable respiratory and circulatory support, appropriate enteral nutrition and parenteral nutrition, application of caffeine/glucocorticoids/surfactants, and out-of-hospital management after discharge. The continuous advances in stem cell medicine in recent years provide new ideas for the treatment of BPD. Various pre-clinical trials have confirmed that stem cell therapy can effectively prevent lung injury and promote lung growth and damage repair. This article performs a comprehensive analysis of the mechanism of mesenchymal stem cells in the treatment of BPD, so as to provide a basis for clinical applications.
Keywords: Bronchopulmonary dysplasia, Paracrine, Extracellular vesicle, Mesenchymal stem cell, Preterm infant
支气管肺发育不良(bronchopulmonary dysplasia,BPD),又称新生儿慢性肺疾病,是早产儿严重并发症之一。尽管积极采取应用肺表面活性物质[1]、咖啡因[2]、糖皮质激素[3]和肺保护性通气策略[2]等治疗措施,BPD发生率仍呈现逐年升高趋势[4-5]。随着围生医学的不断进步,早产儿特别是超早早产儿(胎龄22~28周)存活率增加[6]。尚处于小管期或囊状期的早产儿肺无法维持正常发育,出现肺泡发育简化[7],血管生成异常和气道平滑肌重塑等肺损伤[8]。BPD致病因素较多,包括母体因素[9-10]、机械通气[11]、感染[12]、炎症[13]、氧化应激[14]、营养不良[15]、表观遗传因素[16]等,目前尚缺乏有效的干预措施来预防或治疗该疾病。近年来,细胞治疗在早产儿肺修复中具有重要前景[17]。间充质干细胞(mesenchymal stem cells,MSCs)因其独特的免疫逃避和多效性作用[18],有望成为治疗BPD的优势方式。
1. MSCs的概述
MSCs是具有自我更新能力的多能非造血干细胞,由Caplan[19]在20世纪80年代首次命名。在随后的10年中有研究发现,在适当的生长因子和化学刺激物的作用下,MSCs在体外沿着不同的中胚层谱系分化成骨、软骨和脂肪的间充质细胞系[20]。2006年,国际细胞治疗协会制定了鉴定MSCs的最低标准,即在体外培养时,MSCs表现为具有黏附性的,向软骨细胞、成骨细胞和脂肪细胞分化能力的,以及表达一组表面标记物的集落形成细胞[21]。大量的临床前试验证明MSCs具有改善组织损伤和修复器官功能的能力。MSCs治疗成人疾病的临床试验已经开展,其在急性肺损伤[22]、克罗恩病[23]、糖尿病[24]等疾病中的治疗作用已被证实。同时Chang等[25]也证实了MSCs治疗早产儿BPD的安全性和可行性。越来越多的研究表明,MSCs不仅具备自我更新和多向分化潜能,其分泌性作用更值得关注,更有Caplan[26]建议可以将MSCs命名为“药物信号细胞”。
2. MSCs治疗BPD的作用形式
2.1. MSCs的组织替代
MSCs在体内行为的自然模型[27]表明它们可以通过膜和组织迁移到受损部位。MSCs归巢到靶组织是一个多步骤的过程,包括在血液中以血栓形式流动、激活内皮细胞、阻滞整合素、重塑基底膜,沿趋化因子浓度梯度迁移[28]。值得注意的是,无论是否存在肺特异性损伤,大多数静脉注射MSCs在第1次通过循环时通常会驻留在肺微血管中,仅一小部分分布到其他部位[29]。然而多项临床前研究发现,目前所观察到的MSCs在肺中的植入率仅在0%~20%之间[30]。已有实验数据显示,在给予新生大鼠BPD模型人MSCs 18 d后,仅在鼠肺少量细胞内检测出人β2-微球蛋白,在4 d内几乎检测不到人类Alu序列[31]。低细胞移植率提示MSCs不能仅通过分化为替代细胞类型或细胞融合修复受损或死亡的细胞来治疗BPD。
2.2. MSCs的旁分泌
MSCs可通过释放多种生长因子、抗炎因子、免疫调节因子[如肝细胞生长因子(hepatocyte growth factor,HGF)、前列腺素E2、肿瘤坏死因子刺激基因6蛋白(tumor necrosis factor-stimulated gene-6 protein,TSG-6)、胰岛素样生长因子1、血管内皮生长因子(vascular endothelial growth factor,VEGF)等]、线粒体及含有蛋白质和RNA的细胞外囊泡到肺损伤部位,促进组织修复和功能恢复[32]。
2.2.1. MSCs细胞外囊泡
MSC衍生的细胞外囊泡(MSC-derived extracellular vesicles,MSC-EVs)通过运载生物活性信号分子穿梭于细胞之间或直接激活受体细胞的信号通路来介导细胞内的通讯[33]。细胞外囊泡根据直径大小可分为:外泌体(30~100 nm)、微泡(100~1 000 nm)和凋亡小体(1 000~5 000 nm);国际细胞外囊泡协会现在建议使用“细胞外囊泡”概括描述所有大小的囊泡,并推荐根据理化特性或起源条件来代替单纯基于直径大小的分类方式[34]。细胞外囊泡表达与来源细胞相似的细胞表面蛋白,并含有多种细胞质成分,包括蛋白质、RNA(包括mRNA和非编码RNA,如microRNA)、脂质、线粒体和DNA等[33]。MSC-EVs被认为是MSCs修复肺损伤的关键治疗因子。Leeman等[35]认为,MSC-EVs携带的分泌因子可能通过在损伤后替换有缺陷的信号从而触发内源性上皮细胞修复损伤来治疗BPD。Chaubey等[36]在新生BPD小鼠模型中证实,脐带来源的MSC-EVs可改善肺部炎症,缓解肺动脉高压和右心室肥厚。Willis等[37]认为MSC-EVs不仅可以在新生儿期有效预防BPD的发展,还可以为已确诊BPD患儿的儿童期管理和逆转心肺并发症提供有益的作用。
2.2.2. MSCs通过线粒体转移的修复能力
近年来,有研究在MSCs分化和维持过程中观察到线粒体的重塑,推测线粒体参与调控移植后MSCs的自我更新和多向分化[32]。同时线粒体转移也是MSCs再生和修复受损细胞或组织的一种发生机制。它可以改变MSCs作用微环境,恢复受损细胞的生物能量需求,促进MSCs发挥修复作用。线粒体的转移途径包括隧道纳米管、囊泡、缝隙连接、细胞融合等。在体外培养中,隧道纳米管和囊泡较其他两种形式更容易被观察到[32]。损伤细胞的局部微环境改变,如线粒体受损、线粒体DNA和线粒体产物的释放及活性氧水平的升高,都会触发线粒体捐赠,即线粒体从MSCs向受体细胞转移[38]。有研究证实,MSCs通过隧道纳米管传递的线粒体增强了巨噬细胞的吞噬作用,同时调节免疫应答能力[39]。在诱导急性肺损伤的小鼠模型中,MSCs通过将线粒体转移到肺泡上皮细胞发挥修复肺损伤作用[40]。
3. MSCs治疗BPD的作用机制
3.1. MSCs免疫调节及抗炎作用
当MSCs暴露于炎症环境中时,通过释放多种介质,如免疫抑制分子、外泌体、趋化因子、补体和各种代谢物,协调局部和全身的免疫反应。一项评估早产儿异基因人脐带血衍生MSCs移植的安全性和可行性研究中,MSCs移植后第7天患儿气管抽吸液体中IL-6、IL-8、TNF-α等相关炎性因子明显减少[25]。高氧新生小鼠肺中促炎“M1”巨噬细胞增多,抗炎“M2”巨噬细胞减少。经腹腔注射MSCs,小鼠肺中M1/M2平衡恢复到常氧水平,高氧肺损伤得到修复[41]。有研究指出,这种巨噬细胞极化可能受MSCs分泌的核心蛋白聚糖与巨噬细胞上的CD44相互作用的调控[42]。MSCs分泌的TSG-6是一种多功能蛋白,受促炎刺激而分泌增加,可降低BPD小鼠促炎细胞因子TNF-α和IL-1β的产生[36]。TSG-6还可与CD44结合,调控巨噬细胞极化,并抑制中性粒细胞、单核细胞和巨噬细胞浸润到炎症组织[43]。另有研究认为,MSCs分泌的在小鼠肺损伤模型中起治疗作用的因子,吲哚胺2,3-二氧化酶(indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase,IDO)也参与了调控TSG-6的抗炎能力[44]。
3.2. MSCs促血管生成作用
炎症信号刺激MSCs产生多种生长因子,VEGF、血小板衍生生长因子、成纤维细胞生长因子、转化生长因子等[45-47],这些生长因子可以激活常驻干细胞的再生潜能,促进血管生成和基质重塑。VEGF在MSCs诱导的血管生成中起着核心作用[48]。在啮齿类动物模型中[49],高氧引起肺部内源性VEGF水平下降,给予MSCs后VEGF下降减缓。VEGF通常由Ⅱ型肺泡细胞产生,刺激内皮细胞促进血管形成,引导上皮细胞成熟和增殖,参与肺小管和囊状形成[50-51]。在死于BPD的患儿肺中检测到VEGF低表达[52]。VEGF的调控被认为是预防和治疗BPD的一个可行性策略。然而Kuchroo等[53]在人脐带MSCs条件培养液中却未检测到VEGF,推测观察到的高水平的基质金属蛋白酶-2可能与VEGF非依赖途径血管生成反应有关。Reiter等[54]的一项研究表明,在BPD的啮齿动物模型中,介导肺再生的基质细胞衍生因子-1增强了促血管生成作用。Shen等[55]发现,脐带来源的MSCs促血管生成的有效旁分泌因子是一个大的复合体,除了有VEGF、胰岛素样生长因子1外,还分泌不同的细胞因子和趋化因子,如单核细胞趋化蛋白1和HGF等。
3.3. MSCs抗氧化活性
氧化应激在BPD的发病过程中起主要作用。高浓度氧引起肺的非特异性改变,在体内形成的高活性氧自由基,是BPD发病的关键炎症介质[56]。骨髓MSCs通过清除自由基和提供线粒体直接或间接地上调其他细胞的抗氧化防御能力及改变细胞生物反应。同时MSCs的免疫抑制特性也可以避免氧自由基的产生。转录因子核因子E2相关因子2与其主要的负调节因子Kelch样环氧氯丙烷相关蛋白-1一起,形成了一个分子效应器和传感器系统,对干扰细胞氧化还原平衡的因素作出强有力的反应。MSC-EVs携带的miRNA激活核因子E2相关因子2,表达高水平的过氧化氢酶、谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶和超氧化物歧化酶,维持氧化-抗氧化平衡[57-58]。此外,细胞在氧化应激和炎症状态下释放的活性氧也被认为触发了线粒体的转移,同时MSCs通过降低线粒体氧自由基和电子转运链复合物的活性逆转氧化应激状态。目前,MSCs抗氧化作用已被证实可以改善多种器官损伤,如肠道[59]、脑部[60]和肾脏[61]等。另有研究指出,骨髓MSCs的短暂高氧预处理可增加抗氧化剂锡钙素-1的产生,通过阻断解偶联蛋白2来减轻氧化应激,并增强BPD啮齿类动物模型的肺保护作用[62]。
3.4. MSCs对肺纤维化的影响
2019年的一项临床研究在对4名给予脐带MSCs移植的BPD患儿的随访中发现,4名患儿均从BPD中恢复,并且胸部影像学检查证实肺纤维化逐渐减少[63]。肺纤维化的特点是细胞外基质过度沉积,尤其Ⅰ型胶原广泛积聚,肺实质和上皮屏障破坏,成纤维细胞和肌纤维母细胞增生[64]。存活的BPD患儿的肺部病理表现出明显的纤维化特征[65]。慢性炎症是纤维化的主要驱动因素,骨髓MSCs通过减少巨噬细胞和B淋巴细胞的过滤和抑制肿瘤坏死因子等促炎因子的表达来改善组织纤维化[66]。在博来霉素诱导的小鼠肺损伤模型中,来源于脐带组织的MSC-EVs可以通过增加HGF来减轻肺纤维化[67]。TGF-β是肺纤维化的主要调节因子,是MSCs抗肺纤维化治疗的主要靶点之一。MSCs通过Wnt信号通路降低了TGF-β的表达[68]。在过敏性气道炎症小鼠模型中,MSCs通过阻断TGF-β/Smad信号通路而减轻气道炎症和防止气道重塑[69]。TGF-β还通过调节基质金属蛋白酶和金属蛋白酶组织抑制剂之间的平衡来增强基质蛋白的合成。有研究表明,HGF可以通过抑制TGF-β的表达并增加基质金属蛋白酶浓度来改善胶原降解能力[70]。最近有报道称,骨髓MSCs分泌的锡钙素-1通过减少成纤维细胞分泌胶原,减少内皮细胞分泌TGF-β从而发挥抗纤维化作用[71]。不难看出,MSCs可以改善细胞外基质的质量,使其形成有利于组织再生的微环境,从而减少组织纤维化,增加常驻干细胞增殖,并最终导致组织再生。
3.5. 肺内MSCs与BPD
肺内MSCs(lung-resident MSCs,L-MSCs)通过调控肺泡间隔和血管化的过程在肺发育中起着协调器的作用。在啮齿动物中,L-MSCs分化为肺成纤维细胞群的祖细胞,通过诱导靶向分化促进早期器官发育。在生理环境下,人类胎儿肺在充满液体的低氧子宫环境中发育生长。胎儿肺内含有大量的L-MSCs,低氧环境使L-MSCs保持着多能性和增殖潜力,促进肺内皮细胞和上皮细胞成熟,调控正常肺发育。早产不仅会中断肺的成熟过程,同时在氧化应激和炎症等病理生理环境下,L-MSCs出现活力减低、紊乱或凋亡。Popova等[72]提出L-MSCs可能参与了BPD的病理过程,通过测定早产儿出生后第1周的气管抽吸物中L-MSCs水平可预测BPD的发展。然而L-MSCs是BPD修复过程的一部分还是BPD的关键致病因素,仍然是一个有待探究的问题。而外源性MSCs是否可以通过改善L-MSCs微环境而激活其修复能力也许可以成为下一个热点话题。
4. 总结
MSCs通过组织替代、旁分泌及线粒体作用等方式参与免疫调节、抗炎、抗氧化、抗纤维化、促进血管生成等作用。2014年首次报道了MSCs治疗BPD的成功案例[25],并在接下来的短期随访中发现MSCs似乎是安全的,该病例的长期随访仍在进行中[73]。尽管已有临床试验验证了MSCs的治疗效果[74],但更需要大量的临床前试验为MSCs的临床应用提供基础[75]。并且MSCs是否可以应用于免疫功能异常的早产儿仍是一个值得深入研究的问题。早产儿疾病并不局限于肺部的异常发育,其他系统也因早产易出现严重损伤,包括脑损伤、坏死性小肠结肠炎和早产儿视网膜病变等。了解MSCs治疗BPD的相关机制也可以为MSCs修复其他器官损伤的研究提供理论基础和新的思路。
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