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. 2021 Dec 9;31(2):139–153. doi: 10.1007/s10068-021-01013-8

Bioprospecting of underutilized mangrove fruits used by coastal communities in the Odisha coast, India: a review

Pramodini Rout 1,✉
PMCID: PMC8817954  PMID: 35186345

Abstract

Mangrove bioresources are considered as promising for bioprospecting due to rich biological diversity such as food, pharmaceutical, agricultural, and industrial sectors. Mangrove fruits are one of the most important bioresource used by coastal communities of Odisha, India and contributing significantly to food security and livelihood. However, some potential and functional mangrove fruits which are still underutilized and underexplored due to escaped attention and scientific inquiry. Therefore, the present review aims to provide a comprehensive study of edibility, socio-economic importance, nutritional, antinutritional, and antioxidant properties of mangrove fruits of Odisha. Several fruits such as Aegiceras corniculatum, Heritiera fomes, Kandelia candel, Sonneratia apetala, and Sueda maritima which are nutritious and also used in pharmaceutical industries to produce anticancer, antidiabetic, antitumor, and other therapeutic agents. Hence, bioprospecting, conservation, and commercialization of underutilized mangrove fruits can be a potential way of ensuring food, medicine, and nutritional security in future.

Keywords: Bioprospecting, Mangrove, Edible fruits, Odisha

Introduction

Bioprospecting is the exploration of products from biological resources for the applications in the food, agricultural, and pharmaceutical industries. Mangrove resources are considered as encouraging for bioprospecting because of their biodiversity richness (Kathiresan, 2012). Mangrove bioresources play the most significant roles such as providing fooder, fuelwood, and indigenous medicine. Mangrove fruits are one of the most important bioresource among them, which are contributing significantly to the food security and livelihood for coastal and rural communities (Basak et al., 2016; Rout et al, 2015a; Patil and Chavan, 2013).

Mangroves are an abundant natural resource in the Odisha coast, India that supports high levels of mangrove diversity. Mangrove fruit species including Aegiceras corniculatum, Heritiera fomes, Heritiera littoralis, Kandelia candel, Rhizophora apiculata, Rhizophora mucronata, Sonneratia apetala, Xylocarpus granatum, Avicennia marina, Sonneratia apetala, Acanthus ilicifolius, Bruguiera cylindrica, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Ceriops decandra, Phoenix paludosa, and Sueda maritima are distributed different geographical regions of the Odisha coast. Food security is one of the major problems all over the World. In developing countries so many of people suffering from nutrient deficiency because do not have sufficient food to their daily requirements. Many underutilized and neglected mangrove fruits of the Odisha coast like Sonneratia apetala, Kandelia candel, Rhizophora apiculata, Aegiceras corniculatum, Avicennia officinalis, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza which are rich in edibility as well as nutraceuticals properties (Basak et al., 2016; Rout et al., 2015a). In addition, mangrove fruits are also a promising source of nutrients such as vitamins, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, fibers, sugar, and essential elements. Many coastal rural communities have used the fruits of Sonneratia apatala as raw, vegetable, and processed foods like juice, jam, jelly, syrups, and other types of foods (Pramanick et al., 2014). It is well known that fruits of Sonneratia are popular having good taste and used as various food products such as syrups (Abeywickrama and Jayasooriya, 2010), cakes, and steamed pudding have been produced from it (Brown, 2006). Apart from that the ripened fruits also be manufactured to generate income for poor communities and reduce their livelihood burden. Besides that the fruits of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza can be utilized as an alternative flour rich of carbohydrate recommended by Subandriyo and Setianingsih (2016).

Several mangrove fruits like Sonneratia apetala, Sonneratia alba, Rhizophora apiculata, Kandelia candel, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Bruguiera parviflora contain different bioactive constituents such as phenolics, flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, saponins, carotenoids, and strong antioxidant activity (Basak et al., 2016; Hossain et al., 2013, 2016; Rout et al., 2015a; 2015b; Wonggo et al., 2017). It is reported that these potent fruits are used for a number of diseases such as aphrodisiac, diuretic, hepatitis, antitumor, asthma, ulcers, diabetes, leprosy, rheumatism, swellings, sprains, bleeding, and hemorrhages (Bandaranayake, 1998, 2002; Premanathan et al., 1996). Mangrove fruits possess both enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant defense system which are well protected against various environmental stresses such as oxidative stress, drought, salinity, and extreme temperature (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001).

Till now, very little comprehensive work has been made on the diversity and utilization of mangrove fruits and their nutraceuticals properties of Odisha coast, more studies were concentrated on leaf and root of mangrove species. Several studies have been carried out on the nutritive values and presence of potent micronutrients in the commercial edible fruits whereas very few scientific reports have been documented with mangrove edible fruits such as Heritiera fomes, Heritiera littoralis, Kandelia candel, Rhizophora apiculata, Sonneratia apetala, Xylocarpus granatum, Sonneratia apetala, Bruguiera cylindrica, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Ceriops decandra, and Sueda maritima (Analuddin et al., 2019; Basak et al., 2016; Hossain et al., 2016; Patil and Chavan, 2013; Ray et al., 2015; Rout et al., 2015a).

However many edible mangrove fruits which are inexpensive and commonly used by locals and whose nutraceuticals value have not yet been adequately studied. Therefore, it is necessary to explore and identify the neglected and underutilized edible mangrove fruits in terms of their contribution to food security, commercialization, and popularization. The present review is an attempt to explore the detailed studies on underutilized and neglected mangrove fruits of Odisha coast, India and their diversity distribution, nutraceuticals, socio-economical, and pharmacological significance.

Mangrove fruit species diversity in Odisha coast

Mangroves of the Odisha coast are distributed in five zones i.e. the Bhitarakanika mangrove, Mahanadi delta, Subarnarekha, Dhamara, and Devi mouth (Basak et al., 2019). Among these Bhitarakanika is one of the largest mangrove biodiversity system of Odisha coast (Fig. 1). Based on a preliminary survey and available literatures the area coverage of mangrove wetlands are shown in Fig. 2. About 75 mangrove species and its associate are found in Bhitarkanika region (Pattanaik et al., 2008). The important dominant species are Aegiceras corniculatum, Avicennia officinalis, Cerebra manghas, Excoecaria agallocha, Heritiera fomes, Heritiera littoralis, Kandelia candel, Rhizophora apiculata, Rhizophora mucronata, Sonneratia apetala, Xylocarpus granatum, Xylocarpus mekongenesis, and Xylocarpus moulcensis. In addition, Mahanadi delta consists of 34 true mangrove species and the dominant species are Avicennia officinalis, Avicennia marina, Sonneratia apetala, Exocoecaria agallocha, and Rhizophora mucronata. It is found that Devi mouth mangrove wetland comprises 15 mangrove species such as Avicennia officinalis, Avicennia marina, Avicennia alba, Acanthus ilicifolius, Aegiceras corniculatum, Excoecaria agallocha, Rhizophora apiculata, Bruguiera cylindrica, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Ceriops decandra, Sonneratia apetala, Aegialitis rotundifolia, Phoenix paludosa, Kandelia candel, and Lumnitzera racemosa. Moreover, eighteen mangrove species have so far been reported on Subarnarekha coast (Naskar, 2004). Among them Avicennia officinalis, Avicennia marina, Exocoecaria agallocha, and Sueda maritima are the dominant species on Subarnarekha wetland (Mandal and Naskar, 2008). Some of the popular mangrove edible fruits found in the coastal region of Odisha are shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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Map showing the geographic distribution of mangroves forest in Odisha coast, India. N.B. Red mark indicated as mangrove wetlands in Odisha coast

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

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Area coverage of mangrove wetlands in Odisha coast

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

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Mangrove edible fruit species in Odisha coast, India (A) Sonneratia alba (B) Aegiceras corniculatum (C) Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (D) Phoenix paludosa (E) Bruguiera parviflora (F) Avicennia marina (G) Sonneratia caseolaris (H) Sonneratia apetala (I) Kandelia candel (J) Ceriops decandra (K) Rhizophora apiculata (L) Xylocarpus granatum

Edibility and mode of consumption of some mangrove fruits

The mangrove fruits are used as different form of the edible parts for consumption like pericarp, whole fruit, seeds, and kernels. Mangrove fruits are not only provide food but also contribute nutraceuticals benefits to human body. The fruits are consumed in many different ways and made to diverse recipes according to the local traditions. Whereas, fruits are not only eaten as raw but also prepared via a variety of cooking process. Fruits are also used in other forms such as pickle, juice, sauces etc. Fruits of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Sonneratia alba, Sonneratia caseolaris, and Terminalia catappa are used as vegetable (Bandaranayake, 1998). Similarly, hypocotyls of Bruguiera sexangula are consumed as vegetables and sometimes used as substitute of betel. The fruits of Sonneratia apetala especially its seeds could be of great use in preparation of functional foods and dietary supplements. In addition, the fruits of Sonneratia caseolaris used as vegetables and fruit drinks and it is the rich source of pectin. Fruits of Terminalia catappa are eaten as raw after ripening. Brown (2006) reported that preparation of different recipes using the fruits of Avicennia sp., Nypa fruticans and Bruguiera gymnorrhiza. Whereas, the bulk of honey is produced from the pollens of Ceriops decandra and Avicennia marina. The best quality honey is produced from Aegialitis rotundufolia, Porteresia coarctata are used as livestock fodder (Pattanaik et al., 2008). Fruits of Phoenix paludosa are used as a coffee substitute. Even in the time of scarcity of food, people use grains of Porteresia coarctata as a substitute of Rice. The mode of consumption along with ethnomedicinal properties of some selected mangrove fruits as reported by various authors are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1.

Edibility and ethnomedicinal properties of mangrove fruits in Odisha coast

Scientific Name Local name Edible part Edible/medicinal properties References

Avicennia offiicinalis

(Avicenniaceae)

 Dhana bani Kernel of fruit Occasionally edible as vegetable Naskar (2004)
Aphrodisiac, diuretic, hepatitis Bandaranayake (1998)

Bruguiera cylindrica

(Rhizophoraceae)

 Dot Whole fruit Used as famine food Banerjee and Rao (1990)
Treatment of hepatitis Bandaranayake (2002)

Bruguiera gymnorrhiza

(Rhizophoraceae)

 Bandari Whole fruit Cooked with salt and dried and consumed Singh and Odaki (2004)
Treatment of eye diseases Bandaranayake (2002)

Bruguiera parviflora

(Rhizophoraceae)

 Kaliachua Whole fruit Used as vegetable Singh and Odaki. (2004)
Antitumor Bandaranayake (1998)

Bruguiera sexangula

(Rhizophoraceae)

 Bandari Whole fruit Used as vegetable and sometimes used as substitute of betel Bandaranayake (1999)
Antitumor Bandaranayake (1998)

Ceriops decandra

(Rhizophoraceae)

 Garani

Whole

Fruit

 Used as food Hosen et al. (2020)
Hepatitis, Ulcer Premanathan et al. (1996)

Heritiera fomes

(Sterculiaceae)

 Sundari Whole fruit Fruits are eaten as source of nutrients, Popular for making pickles and beverages Halder et al. (2014), The wealth of India. (1970)
Kidney disease, syndrome of edema Halder et al. (2014)

Heritiera littoralis

(Sterculiaceae)

 Bada Sundari Whole fruit Fruits are edible The wealth of India. (1970)
Antifungal activity Bandaranayake (2002)

Kandelia candel

(Rhizophoraceae)

 Sinduka Whole fruit Fruits of kernel edible, Used as sweetened stuffing for pastry after removal of tannin Bandaranayake (1998)
Diabetes Bandaranayake (1998)

Nypa fruticans

(Arecaceae)

 Nipa Whole fruit Fruits are used as food Pattanaik et al. (2008)
Useful of treating snake and insect bites, Diabetes, Leprosy, Rheumatism Bandaranayake (2002)

Phoenix paludosa

(Arecaceae)

 Hentala Whole fruit Ripen fruits are sweet and edible Pattanaik et al. (2008)
Antiphlogistic properties Mahapatra and Panda. (2009)

Porteresia coarctata

(Poaceae)

 Dhani dhana Whole fruit Used as food grain Pattanaik et al. (2008)
Stomach ailments Chaudhuri and Das. (2009)

Rhizophora apiculata

(Rhizophoraceae)

 Rai Whole fruit Cooked as vegetables, a famine food Agoramoorthy et al. (2008), Beula et al. (2012)
Hepatitis Bandaranayake (1998)

Sonneratia apetala

(Sonneratiaceae)

 Keruan

Whole fruit

(pericarp and seed)

 Fruits by cooking with pulses and small shrimps Hossain et al. (2017)
Asthma, febrifuge, ulcers, swellings, sprains, bleeding, and hemorrhages Bandaranayake (1998)

Sonneratia alba

(Sonneratiaceae)

 Orua Whole fruit Fruits are used as vegetables Pattanaik et al. (2008)
Poultice in swellings and sprains Bandaranayake (1998)

Sonneratia caseolaris

(Sonneratiaceae)

 Orua Whole fruit Fruits are used as vegetables, Fruit drinks, rich source of pectin Bandaranayake (1998)
Sprain poultice, hemorrhage, piles, bleeding Bandaranayake (1998)

Terminalia catappa

(Combretaceae)

 Katha badam Kernel of fruit Eaten as raw after ripening Pattanaik et al. (2008)
Cure of dysentery, Headache, leprosy Fan et al. (2004)

Xylocarpus granatum

(Meliaceae)

 Sisumar Whole fruit Fruits are scented and aromatic and chewed with betel leaves The wealth of India (1970)
Antidiabetic and antidyslipidaemic properties Srivastava et al. (2011)
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Seasonal availability for fruit collection

Most of the mangrove fruits are available in the month of August and September (End of Summer and start of Autumn season). Whereas, the month of October is the proper time during which most of the fruits ripens and ready to be collected. The availability of fruits are very less in spring and winter as shown in Table 2.

Table 2.

Flowering and fruiting period of some edible mangrove fruit species in Odisha coast

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Mangrove edible fruit and their food security

Food security is one of the major issue in many developing countries. Millions of people suffering from nutritional deficiency because of no sufficient food for their daily requirements. Many coastal rural communities depend upon the wild source including fruits to meet their food needs in the time of food crisis. Mangrove fruits are one of them which not only nutritious but also provide livelihood for tribal and poor people. Many of the mangrove fruits such as Sonneratia apetala, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Heritiera fomes, Heritiera littoralis, Kandelia candel, Rhizophora apiculata, Kandelia candel, Avicennia marina, and Avicennia alba are nutritionally very rich and great medicinal value. In addition, mangrove fruits adds variety of family diet and contributes to household food security. Moreover, mangrove fruits can improve rural employment and generate income through processing many value added products like juice, sauce, jam, and flour.

Socio-economic significance of mangrove fruits

The processed food products such as jam, jelly, pickles produced from source of mangrove fruits which are benefit for low returns. Mangrove fruits also give an opportunities to sale of fruits in market to supports livelihood by the way of income diversification. Sonneratia species are considered as functional fruits and also fruits are used as processed food such as pickles, sauce etc. which is bring profit to local people. Conservation of edible mangrove species will not only improve economic condition of local coastal communities but will also protect the valuable diversity. Hence, mass propagation and further plantation will give an insight for coastal development.

Detail appraisal on nutraceuticals properties of mangrove edible fruits

Nutritional attributes

Mangrove edible fruits are potential source of nutrients such as protein, carbohydrate, minerals, fibers, and vitamins which play a significant role in growth and development for human body. They provide numerous benefit to human being like food security and livelihood to coastal people. Hence, it is necessary to explore the underutilized fruits which have great promising values to fulfill the daily diet to rural poor people. However, there has been a developing concern in recent years to assessment of some mangrove edible fruits for their nutritional properties (Analuddin et al., 2019; Basak et al., 2016; Rout et al., 2015a; Patil and Chavan, 2013; Sudirman and Nurjanah, 2014). Several reports have been documented on the nutritional and micronutrient properties in other commercial fruits species but very less studies have been reported on mangrove edible fruits (Halder et al., 2013). Basak et al. (2016) and Rout et al. (2015a) suggested that fruits of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Bruguiera parviflora, Bruguiera cylindrica, Heritiera fomes, Rhizophora apiculata, and Kandelia candel are rich source of nutrients like protein, moisture, fiber, ash, total sugar, and reducing sugar. They revealed that mangrove edible fruits play a significant role in the dietary requirements of the tribal as well as local communities of Odisha coast. They also concluded that the protein content is between 4.4 and 15.6 mg/g fresh weight, moisture content is between 52.61 and 71%, total sugar content is between 42 and 457.66%, fiber content is between 0.75 and 0.80 g/g dry wt. and ash content is 0.022–0.33 g/g dry wt. as shown in Table 3. At the same time, Analuddin et al. (2019) studied the nutritional analysis of mangrove fruits such as Xylocarpus granatum, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, and Sonneratia alba. They suggested that the edible mangrove fruits could be used to address many of the nutritional as well as malnourishment concerns of local communities of RAWN park, Indonesia. They also recommended that consumption of edible mangrove fruits could potentially meet the daily required amounts of protein (61 g), fat (66.6 g), total sugar (50 g) for Indonesia adult people. Similarly, it has been found that the fruits (both pericarp and seed) of Sonneratia apetala registered as a rich source of carbohydrate, protein, moisture, lipid, and ash (Hossain et al., 2016). Especially, they found that seeds of Sonneratia apetala are great use in preparation of functional foods and dietary supplements. At the same time, the fruits of Carallia brachiata is a good potential of carbohydrate (65.74%) and contribute the sufficient amount of nutrients for human normal growth (Patil and Chavan, 2015). Whereas, it has been documented that the fruits of Sonneratia caseolaris contain about 15.95% carbohydrate, moisture 77.10%, fat 0.86%, ash 3.85%, and protein 2.24% (Basyuni et al., 2019). Patil and Chavan (2013) reported that fruits of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza having high calorific value (300.29 kcal/100 g), 10.09% of crude fiber, and 68.88% of carbohydrate. It has been accepted that the fruits of Ceriops tagal contain high energy values and rich in nutrient potential and it is used as supplements for animal feed (Qadri and Jamil, 1993). In addition, moisture content of unripe mangrove fruits i.e. Nypa fruiticans was 90% (Sum et al., 2013) while the pericarp of Sonneratia apetala showed 84% (Hossain et al., 2016). Nutritional analysis of Sunderban mangrove fruits i.e. Heritiera fomes, Aegiceras corniculatum, Ceriops decandra, Bruguiera parviflora, and Bruguiera gymnorrhiza have been evaluated by Ray et al. (2015). They suggested that the above five mangrove fruits are exhibited high percentage of carbohydrate (27.25–62.9%), protein (1.2–45.48%), and lipid (1.75–4.31%). They also revealed that the mangrove fruits are nutritionally equivalent to conventional popular fruits. A recent study has been evaluated on nutritional analysis of ten edible mangrove fruits i.e. Aegiceras corniculatum, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Avicennia officinalis, Ceriops decandra, Heritiera fomes, Nypa fruticans, Phoenix paludosa, Sonneratia caseolaris, Sarcolobus globosus, and Xylocarpus mekongensis of Sunderban. Among the all, fruits of Avicennia officinalis is considered as a rich source nutrition followed by Ceriops decandra, Heritiera fomes, and Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (Hosen et al., 2020). While, Sudirman and Nurjanah (2014) compared the old and young fruits of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza and they found that the old fruits contain high carbohydrate content that is 29.28%, moisture content 66.39%, 2.11% protein, 1.07% fat, and 1.15% ash.

Table 3.

Chemical characterization of some edible mangrove fruits

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Mineral elements in mangrove fruits

Micro and macro elements are widely dispersed in nature and that play an important role in the human body like cellular metabolism and regulate blood pressure (Ismail et al., 2011). Fruits are a key source of essential minerals and required for growth and development of the human being (Slavin and Lloyd, 2012). Calcium, Magnesium, and Potassium are essential minerals for building of red blood cells and regulating human body mechanisms (WHO, 1996). Deficiency of such major nutrients in human body, it may cause the several health issue including anemia, child development issues, teeth development, mental retardation, and other health related complications (Effiong and Udo, 2010; Saracoglu et al., 2009; Tapiero and Tew, 2003). There are several reports on mineral analysis of commercial fruits but no concrete data on mangrove edible fruits. It has been reported that the fruits of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Bruguiera parviflora, Bruguiera cylindrica, Kandelia candel, Heritiera fomes, and Rhizophora apiculata are considered as micro and macro nutrient rich fruits of coastal region of Odisha (Basak et al., 2016; Rout et al., 2015a). They concluded that the fruit of Rhizophora apiculata more potent than other studied fruits. It is also documented that the macro elements such as sodium, calcium, potassium, iron in studied fruits ranged from (690 to 1090 mg/100 g dry wt.), (120 to 280 mg/100 g dry wt.), 250 to 800 mg/100 g dry wt. respectively. Whereas, micro elements like iron, manganese, copper, and zinc ranged from (0.015 to 3.06), (0.013 to 3.06), (0.025 to 1.7), and (0.006 to 1.04) mg/100 g dry wt. respectively as shown in Table 3. Similarly, fruit of Sonneratia apetala is a good source of micronutrient reported by Halder et al. (2013). Besides the above findings, Analuddin et al. (2019) suggested that consumption of fruits of Xylocarpus granatum, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, and Sonneratia alba could potentially alleviate the micronutrients. They observed that the fruits of S. alba registered higher micronutrients (Mn/0.063, Zn/0.72, Fe/0.51 mg/g) than other studied fruits whereas, Xylocarpus granatum contained high amount of macronutrient. At the same time, essential minerals like Ca, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mg, Zn, Na, K, P, and S content was more in Sonneratia apetala and the fruit is sufficient for human growth and development (Hossain et al., 2016).They also suggested that Sonneratia apetala may be used as a good source of essential element supplements for the coastal people. It is also recommended that the fruits of Sonneratia apetala meet the daily needs of macronutrients of Na (1.5 g), Ca (1 g), and K (4.7 mg) as well as micronutrients of Mn (2.05 mg), Cu (900 mcg), Fe (19.5 mg), and Zn (11.5 mg) for a mature people. It has been reported that the fruits of Carallia brachiata are rich in micro as well as macro nutrients like Ca, Cu, Zn, Fe, Na, Mg, and Mn and the mineral composition help to determine the health benefit achieved from their use in marginal communities (Patil and Chavan, 2015). Ten mangrove fruits i.e. Aegiceras corniculatum, Avicennia officinalis, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Ceriops decandra, Heritiera fomes, Nypa fruticans, Phoenix paludosa, Sarcolobus globosus, Sonneratia caseolaris, and Xylocarpus mekongensis of Sunderban and their mineral content have been characterized by Hosen et al. (2020). They found that among all macronutrients, potassium was the most abundant followed by Na, P, Mg, and Ca whereas the micronutrients Fe registered in top all followed by Zn, Cu, and Mn.

Hence, they also concluded that Ceriops decandra considered to be the best source of functional components than other studied fruits. Meanwhile, fruits of Heritiera fomes is one of the most promising source of major essential elements i.e. Mg, Mn, Cu, K, Br, and little amount of Fe, Ca, Zn, and Cr. It is well proof that fruits are substitute source of nutrients for the people live in coastal region because they are unable to buy costly nutrient rich food (Halder et al., 2014).

Antioxidant potential

Mangrove edible fruits are not only providing nutritional and essential minerals but also considered as a natural source of antioxidant. Antioxidants are substances that protect the oxidative damage of human cell metabolism like protein, lipids, and nucleic acid from free radicals such as superoxide anion radicals, hydroxyl radicals, and non-free-radical (Gulcin, 2012; Insel et al., 2001). However, mangrove fruits contain many natural antioxidants compounds such as carotenoids, ascorbic acids, phenols, tannins, flavonoids, and other antioxidant enzymes; which are acts as free radical scavengers (Zheng and Wang, 2001). Thus, it is important to be investigated the antioxidant properties of neglected and underutilized mangrove fruits which have a great role against a wide range of human diseases (Garcıa-Alonso et al., 2004; Oliveira et al., 2009). However, some scanty reports are available on antioxidant activity of mangrove edible fruits as described in Table 2 and 3. It has been studied that mangrove fruits are potential source of antioxidants that prevent many diseases such as arthritis, cancer, heart disease, arteriosclerosis, inflammation, brain dysfunction, and ageing process. Rout et al. (2015a) evaluated the potential antioxidant properties of that fruits of Odisha coast such as Rhizophora apiculata, Kandelia candel, and Bruguiera gymnorrhiza are rich in antioxidant properties, and the results showed that nearly same amount of antioxidant content (0.07–0.09 g AAE/g dry wt.) was found in all studied fruits. Similarly, Sharief et al. (2014) suggested that the fruit extracts of two Avicennia sp. i.e. Avicennia marina and Avicennia officinalis are promising source of antioxidant activity. It has been studied that fruits of Sonneratia apatala registered high phenol content, free radical scavenging, total antioxidant content and strong reducing power (Hossain et al., 2016). At the same time, Hosen et al. (2020) investigated that antioxidant properties of ten mangrove fruits of Sunderban and results showed that Ceriops decandra considered as functional fruit because of strong antioxidant content, free radical scavenging, reducing power as well as high phenolic value. The antioxidant activity of methanol extracts of fruit peel of Xylocarpus rumphii has been documented by Bunyapraphatsara et al. (2003). Meanwhile, the strong antioxidant activities have shown in the methanolic extracts of pericarp and the fruit of Sonneratia apetala (Hossain et al., 2013).

The antioxidant potential from the fruits of Kandelia candel possessed potent antioxidant activity (DPPH free radical scavenging and FRAP assays) investigated by Wei et al. (2010). It was also reported that the edible part of Rhizophora mucronata (young pods) exhibited the strong antioxidant activity (Bunyapraphatsara et al., 2003).

Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) is a vital component in the daily diet as it has a numerous roles in the life process. It is a water soluble antioxidant and has an abundant role to prevent many diseases like anemia, scurvy, infections, and bleeding gums, delayed wound healing and neurotic disturbances (Iqbal et al., 2005). It has been reported that fruits of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Bruguiera cylindrica, Bruguiera parviflora, Heritiera fomes, Kandelia candel, and Rhizophora apiculata in Odisha coast are the good source of ascorbic acid (Basak et al., 2016; Rout et al., 2015a). They concluded that fruits of Bruguiera cylindrica (101. 86 mg/100 g) found to be highest ascorbic acid content than other studied fruits. At the same time, Analuddin et al. (2019) documented that the content of ascorbic acid is more in fruit of Xylocarpus granatum (65 mg/100 mg) than Sonneratia alba (40 mg/100 g), and Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (41.87 mg/100 g). Whereas, the fruits of Acanthas ilicifolius exhibited the higher amount of ascorbic acid observed by Kumari et al. (2014).

Phenolic compounds are the principal group of phytochemicals that have good potential to prevent various diseases and stimulating both physical and mental growth. Both ripe and unripe fruit of Nypa fruticans have strong antioxidant activity due to phenolic compounds (Bandaranayake, 1998; Prasad et al., 2013). Similarly, coffee and tea produced from fruit of Rhizophora stylosa have strong antioxidant activity and bioactive compounds reported by Miranti et al. (2018). Whereas, Hossain et al. (2016) suggested that the rich antioxidant and total phenol content was more in Sonneratia apetala fruit. It has been investigated that the fruits of Sonneratia caseolaris have strong antibacterial, antiobese as well as antioxidant activity (Thuoc et al., 2018). Fruits of Sonneratia caseolaris considered as functional food with dietary fiber, vitamins, flavonoid having anti-cholesterol, and anti-diabetic properties documented by Jariyah et al. (2014). Similarly, the analgesic, antidiarrheal, antihelmintic, and cytotoxic activity of Sonneratia apetala fruit extract has been evaluated by Shefa et al. (2014). It is well studied that fruits have remedial activities against asthma, febrifuge, ulcers, swellings, sprains, bleeding, hemorrhages, and piles (Bandaranayake, 1998; Patra et al., 2014).

Phytochemical constituents

Mangrove fruits have several phytochemical constituents like alkaloid, tannin, phenol, steroids, and flavonoids, terpenoids etc. and major compounds are summarized in Table 4 and 5. They have also different pharmacological activities such as antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antidiarrheal, and cytotoxic activity due to the presence of bioactive compounds as reported by Bandaranayake (1998). Hardoko et al. (2015) reported that the ripen fruit of Rhizophora mucronata have rich source of flavonoid, and steroids and other constituents. It has been also found that fruit of Rhizophora mucronata are potential source of steroid, triterpenoid, alkaloid, flavonoid, tannin, catechin, quinone, and anthocyanidin (Ghosh et al, 1985). The fruit of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza as a good source of bioactive compounds studied by Sudirman and Nurjanah (2014). Similarly, Sonneratia apetala contains several phytochemical constituents like flavonoids, anthocyanins, tepenoids, steroids, alkaloids, and polysachharides reviewed by Quraishi and Jadhav (2018). It has been well proof that the application of fruit in pharmaceuticals and medicinal sectors because of rich and diverse source of bioactive compounds such as limonoids, flavonoids, coumarins, terpenoids, glycosides, and alkaloids (Duke, 2000; Habib et al., 2018). Hossain et al. (2013) investigated on photochemical constituents of fruit of Sonneratia apetala and they concluded that fruits are rich source of bioactive compound like flavonoids, anthocyanins, polyphenols, monoterpenes, alkaloids, and antioxidants. Moreover, numerous alkaloid have been found in the fruit of Xylocarpus granatum (Shen et al., 2009). In addition, Das et al. (2014) reported that the fruit of Xylocarpus granatum was found a good source of alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids, tetraterpenoids, limonoids, and triterpenoids. Whereas, Hosen et al. (2020) concluded that fruits of Ceriops decandra registered good source of flavonoids as well as phenolics among Sunderban mangroves.

Table 4.

Phytochemical constituents of some mangrove edible fruits

Fruits Name Oxalate Phytate Tannin Saponin Alkaloid Flavonoid Phenolic
A. corniculatum - -  +  +  -  +   +  +   + 
B. gymnorrhiza  +  +   +   +  +   +   +   +   +  + 
B. parviflora  +   +   +   +   +   +   + 
B. cylindrica  +   +   +   +   +   +   + 
C. decandra ND ND  +   +   +   +  +   +  + 
H. fomes  +   +   +   +   +   +  +   +  + 
H. littoralis  +   +   +   +   +   +   + 
K. candel  +  +   +   +  +   +   +  +   +  +   +  + 
R. apiculata  +  +   +   +  +   +   +  +   +   +  + 
S. caseolaris ND ND  +  +  ND  +   +   + 
S. apetala ND ND  +  +  ND  +   +  +   +  + 
S. alba – –  +  +  –  +   +  +   +  + 
X. granatum  +   +   +  +   +   +   +   + 
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( +) Present, (+ +) highly present, (-) Absent, (- -) Highly absent, ND not defined

Table 5.

Major antioxidant compounds of some edible mangrove fruits

Mangrove fruits Antioxidant compounds References
A. corniculatum Phenolics, Flavonoids Hosen et al. (2020)
A. marina Flavonoids, Phytoalexins Bandaranayake (2002), Khafagi et al. (2003), Prabhu and Guruvayoorappan (2012)
A. officinalis Phenolics, Flavonoids Hosen et al. (2020), Mohammed et al. (2014)
B. gymnorrhiza Isopimaradiene, Catechin, Lignan, Terpenes, Flavonoid, Phenolic, Terpenoids, Tannin, Saponin Hosen et al. (2020), Jun et al. (2008), Riyadi et al. (2021), Rout et al. (2015a), Roy et al. (2018)
B. parviflora Tannin, Phenolics, Triterpenoids, Catechin, Lignan, Terpenes, Bandaranayake (2002), Chumkaew et al. (2005), Jun et al. (2008)
B. cylindrica Catechin, Lignan, Terpenes Jun et al. (2008)
C. decandra Flavonoids, Phenolic Hosen et al. (2020)
H. littoralis Alkaloid, Polyphenol, Tannin, Saponin, Flavonoid, Terpenoid Bandaranayake (2002), Vadlapudi (2015), Wu et al. (2008)
H. fomes Phenolics, Flavonoids Hosen et al. (2020)
K. candel Phenolic, Tannin, Saponin Bandaranayake (1998), Hosen et al. (2020), Rout et al. (2015a), Wei et al. (2010)
N. fruticans Phenolic, Flavonoids Prasad et al. (2013)
R. apiculata Tannin, Saponin Rout et al. (2015a)
R. mucronata Triterpenoids Jun et al. (2008)
R. stylosa Procyanidin Miranti et al. (2018)
S. apetala Polyphenols, Flavonoids, Tannins, Alkaloids, Steroids, Anthocyanins Hossain et al. (2013, 2016)
S. caseolaris Alkaloid, Flavonoids, Tannin, Phenolic Hosen et al. (2020), Pagarra et al. (2019), Wetwitayaklung et al. (2013)
S. alba Phenolic, Flavonoid, Tannin, Steroids, Triterpenoids Wonggo et al. (2017)
X. granatum Alkaloids, Limonoids, Flavonones, Tannin, Saponin Shi et al. (2017), Rout et al. (2015a)
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Antinutritional characterization

Anti-nutritional factors such as oxalate, phytate, tannin, and saponins (Gupta et al., 2005), that are adverse effect of the nutritional value and limiting their utilization as food (Gidamis et al., 2003). The major antinutritional compounds are found in some mangrove edible fruits as summarized in Table 5. Oxalic acid (Oxalate) naturally occurring in different types of fruits, vegetables, grains, and legumes and it causes irritation and swelling in the mouth and throat (Ladeji et al., 2004). It has been reported that the edible mangrove fruits of Odisha coast such as Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Rhizophora apiculata, Kandelia candel, and Xylocarpus granatum also have antinutritional properties (Rout et al., 2015a). They also suggested that fruits Xylocarpus granatum having more oxalate content, which is avoided for excess consumption. Tannins have the ability to precipitate certain proteins and they combine with digestive enzymes thereby making them unavailable for digestion (Abara, 2003). There is a problem to use mangrove fruits as food product because it is too much bitter taste. Besides that, the excess amount of tannin should be avoided due to carcinogenic properties (Chung et al. 1998). Rout et al. (2015a) reported that the tannin content of mangrove fruits of Odisha coast ranged from 0.57 to 0.89 g/g which is safe for human being since it is recommended that acceptable daily intake for tannin is 560 mg/kg/d (Fekadu, 2014). At the same time, Subandriyo and Setianingsih (2016) reported that tannin content of fruits of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (raw material for food flour) is 4.56 mg /l which is also suitable as raw material in making of flour. The ripe fruits of Rhizophora mucronata considered as a rich source of phytochemical like tannin, saponin reported by Hardoko et al. (2015). Apart from that tannin have wide range of positive effect for human health including antiviral, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory antioxidative, antitumor and antidiabetic properties (Kumari and Jain, 2012). Similarly, the combination of phytic acid and many essential elements like iron, calcium, and phosphorous etc. formed to an insoluble phytate, which is normally not absorbed by the body as a result limiting the bioavailability of essential elements (Weaver and Kannan, 2002). It has been observed that phytate content varied from 0.052 to 0.57 g/g in fruits of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Rhizophora apiculata, Kandelia candel, and Xylocarpus granatum of Odisha coast (Rout et al., 2015a). Whereas saponin considered as antinutrients which are naturally occurring glycosides and found in wide varieties of fruits. Saponin decrease blood lipids, lower cancer risks, and lower glucose response (Shi et al., 2004). It has been observed that the fruits of Sonneratia alba is a promising source of phenolics, flavonoids, steroids, triterpenoids, and tannin whereas saponin not detected (Wonggo et al., 2017). Saponin content was found more in the fruits of Kandelia candel (0.03 g/g dry wt.) among four studied fruits such as Rhizophora apiculata, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Xylocarpus granatum reported by Rout et al., (2015a). They also suggested that excess consumption of high saponin content fruits may be avoided.

Antimicrobial properties

It is found that the fruit extracts of Avicennia marina have remarkable antimicrobial activity against a group of microbes (Okla et al., 2021). They also suggested that this fruit can be considered to cure various diseases caused by antibiotic resistant bacteria. Whereas, fruits extracts of A. marina has a great inhibitory effect on the growth of Aspergillus fumigatus and Candida albicans. It has been reported that fruits of Sonneratia apetala have strong antibacterial activity against different microbes (Hossain et al., 2017). At the same time, Jana et al. (2015) evaluated that the fruit extracts of Sonneratia apetala have strong antifungal activity than antibacterial. They also concluded that fruits could be treated for various disease and might be used as pharmaceuticals and preservatives. Meanwhile, Devi and Rajkumar, (2013) investigated that fruits of Avicennia marina have strong antiviral as well as antibacterial activity. It has been reported that fruits extract of Avicennia officinalis with different solvents found antibacterial activity against various microbes such as Escherichia coli, Enterbacter aerogenes, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis, Lactobacillus delbrueckii, Staphylococcus aureus, and Streptococcus pyogens (Mohammed et al., 2014). Ahmad et al. (2018) revealed that fruits of Sonneratia caseolaris have antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Candida albicans.

Ex situ conservation and popularization of lesser known mangrove fruits

Day by day the valuable mangrove diversity are deteriorating due to deforestation, human interference, over exploitation, and land reclamation. Mangrove fruits are one of the important bioresource providing food and livelihood to coastal communities. Hence, promoting and popularizing of lesser known mangrove fruit species not only improve knowledge about nutritional concerns but also provide income source of local populations. In addition, it is need to be conserve and restore of more and more promising mangrove species in the coastal regions of the world for the purpose of food security, environmental protection, and livelihood to coastal people. The important genera of mangrove fruit species particularly Sonneratia, Bruguiera, Ceriops, and Suaeda, which are rich in nutraceuticals value to encouraging them to protect and restore degraded mangrove forests located in Odisha.

Summary and future prospectives

From the present review, it is evident that mangrove fruits are encouraging for their bioprospecting potential for nutraceuticals, antioxidant, mineral, antinutritional, antimicrobial, and bioactive compound. Fruits of Avicennia marina, Sonneratia caseolaris, Sonneratia apetala, Sonneratia alba, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Kandelia candel, Bruguiera parviflora, and Xylocarpus granatum are considered as functional fruit for their nutraceuticals properties. Whereas, these potent fruits may be of maximal uses as alternative source of food security to combat or mitigate malnutrition.

It is cleared from the current review, excess consumption of mangrove fruits which are contained ample amount of antinutrients such as tannin, oxalate, phytate, and saponin should be avoided. Besides that the underexplored, underutilized mangrove fruits provide nutrition for the marginalized rural people since the common popular fruits are costly and unreasonable for them. In addition, it is necessary to popularize the lesser known mangrove fruits which having nutraceuticals and livelihood values. It may also concluded that further studies to identify more underutilized and underexplored mangrove fruits is an urgent need of research and development effort for its food security, conservation, bio-prospection, and sustainable utilization. Functional fruits such as Sonneratia apetala, Sonneratia alba, Sueada maritma, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, and Kandelia candel should be conservation and restoration in the coastal region of Odisha coast for the purpose of food security, protection of environment, and income generation.

Acknowledgements

No funds are received for the completion of this review manuscript.

Declarations

Conflict of interest

The author declares that there is no conflict of interest.

Footnotes

Publisher's Note

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