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Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences logoLink to Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences
. 2021 Oct 12;29(2):955–962. doi: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2021.10.007

Improving growth and productivity of faba bean (Vicia faba L.) using chitosan, tryptophan, and potassium silicate anti-transpirants under different irrigation regimes

Sarah EE Fouda a,⁎, Fathy MA El-Saadony b, Ahmed M Saad c, Samy M Sayed d, Mohamed El-Sharnouby e, Amira M El-Tahan f, Mohamed T El-Saadony g,⁎
PMCID: PMC8847969  PMID: 35197763

Abstract

This work aims to study the effect of foliar spraying of three anti-transpirants i.e., A­1: tryptophan (Tri), A2: potassium silicate (KS), A3: chitosan (Chi) as well as A0: control (Tap water) under three irrigation regimes, I1: 2400, I2: 3600, and I3: 4800 m3ha−1 on the quality and production of faba bean crop and its nutrient contents. The study was carried out during two successive winter seasons of 2018/2019 and 2019/2020. Drought stress affected the average performance of all studied traits as it reduced seed yield and traits, as a result of the decrease in chlorophyll related to photosynthesis, protein, carbohydrates, total phenols, amino acids, macronutrients (N, P, and K), micronutrient contents (Fe, Mn, and Zn) and their absorption. The single foliar spraying of faba bean with tryptophan 75 ppm, potassium silicate at 100 ppm, or chitosan at 750 ppm significantly increased all studied traits and reduced the drought stress compared to control under different irrigation systems. We recommended using a foliar spray of chitosan (750 ppm) on faba bean plants under an irrigation level of 4800 m3 led to an improvement in the physiological properties of the plant, i.e., plant height, the number of branches/plants, and the number of plants, pods plant−1, the number of seed pods−1, the weight of 100 seeds and seed yield ha−1 increased with relative increase about 42.29, 89.47, 28.85, 75.91, 24.43, and 306.48% compared to control. The quality properties also improved, as the total chlorophyll, protein, carbohydrates, total phenols, and amino acids were higher than the control with a relative increase of 63.83, 29.58, 27.72, 37.54, and 64.19%. Additionally, an increase in the contents and uptake of macronutrients (N, P, and K), and micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Zn) and their absorption. The increase was estimated with 29.41, 75.00, 16.56, 431.17, 630.48, 72.68%, 22.37, 35.69, 42.33, 397.63, 452.58, and 485.94% about the control. This was followed by potassium silicate (100 ppm), then tryptophan (75 ppm) compared to the control, which recorded the minimum values ​​in plant traits.

Keywords: Faba bean, Water regime, Anti-transpiration, Tryptophan, Potassium silicate, Chitosan, Yield quality

1. Introduction

Faba bean (Vicia faba L.) is a source of protein, providing a renewable nitrogen input to crops and soils (Saad et al., 2015). The crop can provide the soil with 100 to 200 kg N ha−1 (Jensen et al., 2010). The bean crop is usually irrigated in Egyptian agriculture. Great attention was paid to increase the bean crop productivity. The agricultural strategies should focus on using the resistant varieties to biotic and abiotic stress, considering the water content in the region (Varga et al., 2015). Beans are grown in Egypt in sandy soils, which draining large amounts of water, and negatively impacted the plant properties by drought (Hag and Dalia, 2017). Drought stress badly affects plants' physiology and their productivity, leading to the deficiency of food security and economic losses (El-Saadony et al., 2021a). If a plant is grown in sandy soil with prolonged irrigation, it stimulates its defense system to reduce transpiration or adapt to drought. The plant defense system is not sufficient to resist drought; so, the anti-transpirants must be applied externally to enhance the drought resistance and reduce transpiration through the plant stomata. Chitosan reduces the drought stress in wheat, improving its morphological, quality, and yield properties (Malerba and Cerana, 2020). The addition of amino acids such as tryptophan reduces the effect of drought stress in wheat and affects the physiological processes of plants after absorption (Khalid et al., 2006, Jamil et al., 2018). L-tryptophan is a valuable amino acid. It may act as an osmolyte, an ion transport regulator that modulates stomatal opening and detoxifies harmful effects of heavy metals (Orabi et al., 2014). Furthermore, the tryptophan pathway plays a defensive role in plants (Hussein et al., 2014).

The majority of water absorbed by the crop has been lost through transpiration (Davenport et al., 1972). Anti-transpirant materials are compounds that reduce transpiration through the plant stomata.

Chitosan is a ubiquitous polysaccharide biopolymer, commercially extracted from shrimp and crab shells (Hein, 2004). It is a low toxic and inexpensive compound that is biodegradable and ecofriendly with various applications in agriculture (New et al., 2004). The coating with chitosan can form a semi-permeable film which may modify the internal atmosphere and decrease the transpiration loss of the leaves (Olivas and Barbosa-Cánovas, 2005). Furthermore, enhancing germination (Guan et al., 2009) and plant nutrients mineralization (Bolto et al., 2004). Many other beneficial effects of chitosan on strawberry (Abdel-Mawgoud et al., 2010); Shehata et al. (2012) on cucumber; Abd El-Gawad and Bondok (2015) on tomato. Abu-Muriefah (2013) found that foliar application of chitosan (100–125 mg L−1) received a positive response in all common bean traits, yield, and the mineral content plant.

The foliar spray of banana peel extract or tryptophan on quinoa plants was tested under drought conditions. The application leads to an increase in auxins, following by an increase in photosynthesis and the contents of carbohydrates, proteins, flavonoids, and antioxidant in grains. The banana extract was more efficient than tryptophan because it is rich in vitamins, flavonoids, and amino acids such as tryptophan. It also reduces the amount of water consumed in irrigation (Bakry et al., 2016). The silicate belongs to the Anti-transpirant where its importance is represented in depositing on the leaves, forming a double layer that reduces transpiration in maize plants (Liang et al., 2005, Freitas et al., 2011). The study showed that adding the optimal concentration of silicate to the plant helps in resisting drought. The utilization of sodium silicate or potassium silicate as a source of silicate to combat transpiration is not economical. The use of agricultural wastes and natural compounds is cost-effective (El-Saadony et al., 2021, Saad et al., 2021), therefore, it is possible to use rice and sugarcane residues as a source of silicates.

The present study aims to assess the effect of chitosan, tryptophan, potassium silicate as anti-transpirants on decreasing the amount of water needed for the Faba bean crop grown in three irrigation regimes under Egyptian conditions.

2. Material and methods

Two field experiments were conducted on faba bean (Vicia faba L.) cv. Giza 843, The study was carried out during two consecutive winter seasons of 2018/2019 and 2019/2020 in the Agricultural Research Station Farm, Ismailia Governorate, Egypt, (30° 35′30″N , 32°14′50″E) to determine the effect of three anti-transpirants i.e. A1: tryptophan at (75 ppm), A2: potassium silicate (100 ppm), A3: chitosan (750 ppm) compared to A0: control (Tap water) on the quality and productivity of faba bean crop and its nutrient contents. The anti-transpirants were prepared and sprayed on the plants’ leaves by using a hand pump pressure sprayer (20 L) until the leaves were wet to run off. The experiments were conducted under three irrigation regimes i.e. I1: 2400, I2: 3600, and I3: 4800 m3ha−1 (representing 75, 100, and 150%, respectively of the regime adopted by farmers). All foliar treatments were applied three times at an interval of 30, 45, and 60 days after sowing. The soil was analyzed chemically according to the procedures described by Page et al., 1982, Klute, 1986. The used soil was a sandy loam and its properties showed in Table 1.

Table 1.

Property Value Property Value
Particle size distribution
Clay % 12.59 Soluble ions (mmolc L−1)
Silt % 7.88 Na+ 6.88
Sand % 79.53 K+ 0.82
Texture Sandy loam Ca++ 5.26
EC (dSm−1in paste extract) 1.56 Mg++ 2.60
Cl− 5.13
pH [Soil suspension 1:2.5] 7.88 HCO3– 1.02
Organic matter (g kg−1) 6.41 SO4−− 9.41
CaCO3 (g kg−1) 13.4 CO3–− 0.00



Available nutrients (mg kg−1 soil)
N P K Fe Mn Zn
34.1 5.2 125 1.9 3.2 0.6
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(1) Available nutrient extractants: NH4HCO3-DTPA (for P, K, Fe, Mn, and Zn), KCl (for N).

(2) Texture using the International Texture Triangle.

2.1. Experimental design

The experimental design was a split plot with three replicates. The plot area was 20 m2 (4 × 5 m). Irrigation regimes were applied in the main plots, while the anti-transpirants were applied to the subplots. Each plot included eight rows spaced 50 cm, one plant per hill, and a distance of 20 cm between hills. The drip irrigation system was used with drip laterals spaced 50 cm, and the space between emitters along the polyethylene pipelines was 30 cm. Each irrigation sector had a valve and pressure gauge to maintain the operating pressure at 1 bar and emitter flow rate of 4 L/h. A flow meter was used to measure the amount of targeted irrigation water at each irrigation level. Sowing was occurred on the 20th and 25th November in both seasons, respectively. Harvest happened on 26th and 29th April in both seasons, respectively. The recommended practices of faba bean production were followed.

2.2. Biochemical parameters of faba bean

After 65 days of sowing, 50 g of leaves samples were dried, powdered, and 10 g of the powder was homogenized in 300 mL of ethanol (70%) and stirred for 3 h. The solvent was evaporated with BUCHI rotary evaporator, Germany, the residues was mixed with distilled water and is ready for the following analysis (Saad et al., 2020).

2.2.1. Total polyphenols estimation

The phenolic compounds were estimated according to Chen et al. (2015) with some modifications. In brief, 100 µL of faba leaves extracts were mixed with 50 µL of diluted Folin-Ciocalteu reagent and 50 µL Na2CO3 (7.5%) in microtiter plate. The absorbance was read at 760 nm after 1 h using microtiter plate reader (BioTek Elx808, USA). The total polyphenols content was presented as mg gallic acid equivalent/mL of extract.

2.2.2. Determination of total carbohydrates and protein

The leaves samples were hydrolyzed by HCl 6 N at 120 °C for 24 h, then the acid was evaporated and the residues were dissolved in methanol. Total carbohydrates were estimated by phenol sulfuric acid method according to Saad et al. (2021a). 100 μL leaves hydrolysate was mixed with 50 μL phenol (5%) and 50 μL sulfuric acid (conc.). The absorbance (y) was read at 490 nm after 30 min using microtiter plate reader (BioTek Elx808, USA). The total carbohydrates concentration (x) mg glucose/mL sample was calculated using the following linear equation, y = 0.0053x − 0.0193, R2 = 0.9884. Total nitrogen was estimated by Kjeldahl method and the protein percentage was calculated by multiply % N in 6.25 (AOAC, 2005).

2.2.3. Determination of total chlorophyll and mineral content

The total chlorophyll (a + b) determination as per El-Saadony et al. (2021b). On the other hands, the minerals content was estimated by using the Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS model GPC A932 ver. 1.1) according to Lukić et al. (2020).

2.3. Growth and yield attributes

At maturity, the middle three rows of each plot were harvested and air-dried to determine plant height, number of branch plant−1, number of pods plant−1, number of seeds podt−1, 100-seed weight, and Seed yield (ton ha−1) (El-Saadony et al., 2021b).

2.4. Soil sample analysis after harvest

Top soil samples (0–30 cm) were collected at the maximum growth phases from all of the experimental plots, air dried, crushed, and sieved through a 2 mm sieve, and evaluated for soil EC, pH, and accessible N, P, and K contents using some of the same methods (Page et al., 1982) used to examine the initial soil.

2.5. Statistical analysis

The data obtained from each trial were subjected to the analysis of variance of split-plot design using the computer program MSTAT-C as described by Snedecor and Cochran (1981). A combined analysis was made for data means of the two seasons. The differences between means were compared using Duncan's multiple range test (Duncan, 1955).

3. Results

3.1. Seed yield and its attributes

Data in Table 2 showed that plant height, the number of branches/plants, the number of pods plant−1, the number of seeds pod-1, 100-seed weight, and seed yield ha−1 were significantly increased with the increasing amount of applied irrigation water up to the highest level at 4800 m3 ha−1. Generally, severe drought reduced seed yield by 81.55% comparing with the highest level of irrigation. Moreover, single foliar spray faba beans with Tryptophan (Tri) at 75 ppm, Potassium silicate (KS) at 100 ppm, or Chitosan (Chi) at 750 ppm was significantly increased most above-mention traits compared to control (spraying with tap water) under different irrigation regimes.

Table 2.

Plant height, number of branches−1 plant, pod weight plant−1, seed weight plant−1, 100-seed weight, pod yield and seed yield as affected by irrigation regimes, anti-transpiration materials and their interaction over two growing seasons.

Irrigation Levels
m3ha−1 (I)		 Anti-Transpiration (A) Plant height
(cm)		 No. of branches plant−1 Number of pods
plant−1 		Number of seeds/pod 100-seed weight (g) Seed yield
(ton ha−1)
I1 A0 75.9i 3.99f 10.40 g 2.20 g 79.0 g 1.08 g
A1 83.7 g 4.55def 11.10eg 2.40 fg 83.4f 1.50f
A2 88.3e 5.20cde 11.6def 2.57 ef 87.4de 1.88e
A3 93.5d 6.79ab 12.37abe 2.77de 88.1d 2.29 cd



I2 A0 77.4i 4.18ef 11.03 fg 2.37 fg 79.7 g 1.35 fg
A1 86.4f 5.40 cd 11.73cdef 2.63 e 85.7e 1.92de
A2 97.7c 6.80ab 12.13bcde 2.90d 91.5c 2.49c
A3 98.2c 7.22a 12.83abc 3.23bc 95.4b 3.24b



I3 A0 79.3 h 4.66def 12.00bcdef 2.67 e 82.4f 1.90e
A1 88.5e 5.89bc 12.00bcdef 3.13c 88.3d 2.59c
A2 103b 7.20a 12.57abcd 3.40b 94.3b 3.11b
A3 108a 7.56a 13.40a 3.87a 98.3a 4.39a



Irrigation (I) I1 85.35c 5.13b 11.37b 2.48c 84.47c 1.68c
I2 89.93b 5.90a 11.93ab 2.78b 88.05b 2.25b
I3 94.68a 6.33a 12.48a 3.67a 90.85a 3.05a



Anti-Transpiration (A) A0 77.6 d 4.28 d 11.13c 2.41d 80.3 d 1.44d
A1 86.2c 5.28c 11.61bc 2.72c 85.8c 2.00c
A2 96.2b 6.40b 12.10b 2.96b 91.1b 2.56b
A3 100.0 a 7.19 a 12.87a 3.29a 93.9 a 3.30a



ANOVA I <0.001 0.02 0.052 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
A <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
I × A <0.001 0.3255 0.959 0.052 <0.001 0.002
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Notes: 1. Anti-transpiration sources: A0, A1, A2 and A3 are; Non-Treated, Tryptophan, Potassium Silicate and Chitosan used as foliar spray, respectively. 2. Irrigation regimes: I1, I2 and I3 are; 2400, 3600 and 4800 m3 ha−1 respectively.

Chitosan spray (750 ppm) gave the tallest plants and recorded the maximum values of above-mention traits. Such treatment gave increases of 28.89, 67.99, 15.93, 36.51, 16.94, and 129.17%, followed by Potassium silicate at 100 ppm, which gave increases of 23.97, 49.53, 8.72, 22.82, 13.45, and 77.78. In addition, Tryptophan spray (75 ppm) achieves relative increments of 11.08, 23.36, 4.31, 12.86, 6.85, and 38.89% as compared to control (spraying with tap water) for plant height, number of branches/plants, number of pods plant-1, number of seeds pod−1, 100 seed weight, and Seed yield ha−1, respectively.

The interaction between irrigation levels and anti-transpirants was significant for plant height, the number of seeds pod−1 100 seed weight, and seed yield ha−1 (Table 2). The results showed that spraying faba bean plants with anti-transpiration materials increased the mean performance of all studied traits under the different irrigation levels compared with the non-treated treatment. Meanwhile, spraying faba bean plants with chitosan at 750 ppm under an irrigation level of 4800 m3 ha−1 recorded the highest values with increases of about 42.29, 89.47, 28.85, 75.91, 24.43, and 306.48% for plant height, number of branches/plant, number of pods plant-1, number of seeds pod−1, 100 seed weight and seed yield ha−1 followed by spray with Chitosan at 750 ppm under irrigation level of 3600 m3 ha−1 with increases about 80.95, 23.37, 20.76 and 200.0% for the number of branches plant−1, number of pods plant−1, 100 seed weight and seed yield ha−1. The foliar spray with Potassium silicate at 100 ppm under the irrigation level 4800 m3 ha−1 increased the plant height and the number of seeds pod−1 with a relative increase of about 35.70 and 54.55% compared to control treatment (spray with tap water) × Irrigation Level at 2400 m3 ha−1 which recorded the minimum values of above-mention traits, respectively.

3.2. Yield quality and its components

The contents of total chlorophyll, protein, carbohydrate, total phenols, and amino acids as affected by irrigation regimes, anti-transpiration materials, and their interaction over two growing seasons are shown in Table 3.

Table 3.

Total chlorophyll, protein, carbohydrate, total phenols and amino acids as affected by irrigation regimes, anti-transpiration materials and their interaction over two growing seasons.

Irrigation Levels
m3ha−1 (I)		 Anti-Transpiration (A) Total Chlorophyll
(a + b)
(mg g fw−1)		 Protein
(g kg−1)		 Carbohydrate
(mg g−1)		 Total phenols
(µg g−1 fw)		 Amino acids
(mg g−1)
I1 A0 4.23e 180.33d 150.33 g 38.63 g 22.37f
A1 5.63 cd 210.00abcd 166.33e 44.20e 25.13e
A2 5.94abcd 213.67abcd 175.33 cd 47.33 cd 27.40d
A3 6.37abc 222.00abc 182.67b 48.53c 31.40c



I2 A0 4.85de 183.33 cd 154.33f 39.87 fg 23.67ef
A1 5.77bcd 210.00abcd 169.33e 45.63de 28.20d
A2 6.12abc 223.67abc 177.00c 48.33c 28.10d
A3 6.88ab 226.33a 185.67b 49.20bc 33.17bc



I3 A0 4.96de 185.67bcd 155.00f 41.20f 24.40ef
A1 5.88abcd 214.00abcd 173.00d 48.63c 32.13c
A2 6.44abc 225.67ab 183.33b 51.33ab 34.67b
A3 6.93a 233.67a 192.00a 53.13a 36.73a



Irrigation (I) I1 5.54b 204.75a 168.67c 44.68b 26.58c
I2 5.91ab 210.83a 171.58b 45.76b 28.28b
I3 6.05a 214.75a 175.83a 48.58a 31.98a



Anti-Transpiration (A) A0 4.68c 183.11b 153.22d 39.9c 23.48d
A1 5.76b 209.00a 169.56c 46.16b 28.49c
A2 6.17 ab 221.00a 178.56b 49.00a 30.06b
A3 6.73 a 227.33a 186.78a 50.29a 33.77a



ANOVA I 0.070 0.464 <0.001 0.001 <0.001
A <0.001 0.004 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
I × A 0.993 0.999 0.190 0.719 0.003
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Notes: 1. Anti-transpiration sources: A0, A1, A2 and A3 are; Non-Treated, Tryptophan, Potassium Silicate and Chitosan used as foliar spray, respectively. 2. Irrigation regimes: I1, I2 and I3 are; 2400, 3600 and 4800 m3 ha−1 respectively.

The carbohydrate, total phenols, and amino acids were significantly increased with increasing the amount of applied irrigation water up to the highest level at 4800 m3 ha−1 by 4.24, 8.73, and 20.32%, respectively, comparing with the control.

Moreover, the single application of Tri (75 ppm), KS (100 ppm), or Chi (750 ppm) on faba bean was significantly increased most above-mention traits compared to control (spraying with tap water) under different irrigation regimes.

As shown in Table 3, spraying faba bean with Chi at 750 ppm increased the carbohydrates, total phenols, and amino acid contents by 21.90, 26.04, and 43.82% followed by KS at 100 ppm with increases of 16.54, 22.81, and 28.02% then Tri at 75 ppm which gave increases of 169.56, 46.16 and 28.49, respectively, comparing with control. Similarity, the total chlorophyll increased with the application of anti-transpirants levels.

Regarding the interaction between irrigation levels and anti-transpirants, the results indicated that spraying faba bean plants with anti-transpiration materials increased the mean performance of all studied traits under the different irrigation levels compared with the non-treated treatment. Meanwhile, spraying faba bean plants with chitosan at 750 ppm under the highest irrigation level 4800 m3ha−1 recorded the highest values of total chlorophyll, protein, carbohydrate, total phenols, and amino acids i.e., 63.83, 29.58, 27.72, 37.54, and 64.19%. In addition, the spraying with Chitosan at 750 ppm under irrigation level at 3600 m3ha−1 with increases about 62.65, 25.51, and 23.51% for total chlorophyll, protein, and carbohydrate. Furthermore, the spray with Potassium silicate at 100 ppm under the highest irrigation level 4800 m3ha−1 with about 32.88 and 54.98% for total phenols and amino acids comparing with control treatment (spray with tap water) × irrigation level at 2400 m3ha−1, which recorded the minimum values of above-mention traits, respectively.

3.3. Macronutrients (N, P and K) and micronutrients (Fe, Mn and Zn) contents and uptake

Drought stress significantly decreased the contents and uptake of all minerals except N content. Furthermore, the reduction in these minerals content was more pronounced in the severe compared with the moderate and well-watered conditions. The combined ANOVA for all evaluated traits indicated that the effects of irrigation regime, anti-transpirants, and their interaction were significant for uptake of all minerals, except the irrigation regime impacts on N content and the interaction effect on N, P, K, Fe, Mn, and Zn contents (Table 4, Table 5). On the other hand, the application of anti-transpirants spray demonstrated a significant increase in the abovementioned macro and micronutrients compared with control under different irrigation levels.

Table 4.

Macronutrients’ content and uptake as affected by irrigation regimes, anti-transpiration materials and their interaction over two growing seasons.

Irrigation Levels
m3ha−1 (I)		 Anti-Transpiration (A) Macronutrients content (mg kg−1)
 Macronutrients uptake (kg ha−1)
N P K N P K
I1 A0 28.90d 3.60e 21.13 g 30.83 g 3.74 h 22.84f
A1 32.20abcd 4.20cde 21.50 fg 50.07ef 6.57fgh 32.34e
A2 34.20abcd 4.50cde 22.30def 65.15de 8.61ef 41.96d
A3 35.50abc 4.80bcd 22.80bcde 80.82 cd 10.88de 52.06c



I2 A0 29.30 cd 3.80de 21.83efg 40.15 fg 5.15gh 29.55ef
A1 33.60abcd 4.70bcde 22.37cdef 65.02de 8.86ef 43.02d
A2 35.80ab 4.90bcd 23.37bc 89.95c 12.21 cd 58.26c
A3 36.20a 5.30abc 23.77ab 117.28b 17.18b 76.93b



I3 A0 29.70bcd 4.10cde 22.23def 58.02ef 7.93efg 42.69d
A1 34.20abcd 5.20abc 23.00bcd 88.89c 13.42 cd 59.57c
A2 36.10ab 5.90ab 23.73ab 120.64b 19.63b 78.58b
A3 37.40a 6.30a 24.63a 163.76a 27.32a 107.96a



Irrigation (I) I1 32.78a 4.28b 21.93c 56.72c 7.45c 37.30c
I2 33.73a 4.68b 22.53b 78.1b 10.85b 51.94b
I3 34.35a 5.38a 23.40a 107.88a 17.08a 72.20a



Anti-Transpiration (A) A0 29.3b 3.83c 21.73b 43.06d 5.61d 31.69d
A1 33.43a 4.70b 22.29b 67.99c 9.62c 44.98c
A2 35.37a 5.10ab 23.13a 91.91b 13.48b 59.60b
A3 36.37a 5.47a 23.73a 120.62a 18.46a 78.97a



ANOVA I 0.470 0.028 <0.001 <0.001 0.001 <0.001
A 0.004 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
I × A 0.999 0.872 0.973 0.007 0.001 <0.001
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Notes: 1. Anti-transpiration sources: A0, A1, A2 and A3 are; Non-Treated, Tryptophan, Potassium Silicate and Chitosan used as foliar spray, respectively. 2. Irrigation regimes: I1, I2 and I3 are; 2400, 3600 and 4800 m3 ha−1 respectively.

Table 5.

Micronutrients’ content and uptake as affected by irrigation regimes, anti-transpiration materials and their interaction over two growing seasons.

Irrigation Levels
m3ha−1 (I)		 Anti-Transpiration (A) Micronutrients content (mg kg−1)
 Micronutrient uptake (g ha−1)
Fe Mn Zn Fe Mn Zn
I1 A0 61.37 g 39.87e 27.00d 66.26 h 42.83 g 28.81 h
A1 63.43 fg 42.37e 31.20bcd 95.52 fg 62.89f 46.66fgh
A2 65.33cdefg 43.87bcde 32.17abcd 122.82ef 82.30e 62.01efg
A3 67.47cdef 45.97bcd 34.20abc 153.92 cd 105.16d 77.89de



I2 A0 63.87efg 40.67e 29.53 cd 86.37gh 54.81 fg 39.79gh
A1 65.73cdef 43.90bcde 33.53abcd 125.52de 84.21e 65.17ef
A2 68.13bcd 46.53bc 34.67abc 170.01c 115.89 cd 86.41d
A3 69.33bc 54.67a 34.97abc 224.44b 176.97b 113.17bc



I3 A0 64.20defg 42.10cde 32.53abcd 123.16ef 80.09e 62.69ef
A1 68.13bcdf 47.53b 36.53ab 175.59c 123.14c 94.44 cd
A2 72.13ab 52.63a 37.67ab 239.23b 174.48b 125.06b
A3 75.10a 54.10a 38.43a 329.73a 236.67a 168.81a



Irrigation (I) I1 64.40b 43.02c 31.14b 109.63c 73.29c 53.84c
I2 66.77b 46.44b 33.18ab 151.58b 107.97b 76.13b
I3 69.89a 49.09a 36.29a 217.18a 153.6a 112.75a



Anti-Transpiration (A) A0 63.14c 40.88d 29.67b 91.93d 59.24d 43.76d
A1 65.77b 44.60c 33.76a 132.54c 90.08c 68.76c
A2 68.53a 47.68b 34.83a 177.35b 124.22b 91.16b
A3 70.63a 51.58a 35.87a 236.03a 172.93a 119.96a



ANOVA I 0.011 <0.001 0.059 0.001 <0.001 <0.001
A <0.001 <0.001 0.009 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
I × A 0.509 0.112 0.999 <0.001 <0.001 0.031
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Notes: 1. Anti-transpiration sources: A0, A1, A2 and A3 are; Non-Treated, Tryptophan, Potassium Silicate and Chitosan used as foliar spray, respectively. 2. Irrigation regimes: I1, I2 and I3 are; 2400, 3600 and 4800 m3 ha−1 respectively.

The Chi spray (750 ppm) was exhibited the maximum values of minerals content, i.e., 24.13, 42.82, 9.20, 180, 12.0, 229.06, and 49.20%, and uptake of 11.86, 26.17, 20.90, 156.75, 191.91, and 174.13% followed by KS spray (100 ppm) and Tryptophan at 75 ppm compared with control (spraying with tap water) for macronutrients (N, P, and K) and micronutrients (Fe, Mn, and Zn), respectively.

Regarding the interaction between irrigation levels and anti-transpirants, the results indicated that spraying faba bean plants with chitosan at 750 ppm under the highest irrigation level of 4800 m3ha-1 recorded the highest values with increases about 29.41, 75.00, 16.56, 431.17, 630.48, and 72.68% and 22.37, 35.69, 42.33, 397.63, 452.58 and 485.94% compared to control (spraying with tap water) under the lowest level of irrigation for macronutrients (N, P, and K) and micronutrients (Fe, Mn, and Zn) contents and uptake, respectively.

3.4. Soil pH and salinity, available nutrients after plant harvest

Data in Table 6 showed that all anti-transpirants treatments were decreased the soil pH, which ranging from 7.88 to 7.84 for the I1 treatments; 7.87 to 7.80 for the I2 and 7.87 to 7.80 for the I3. The lowest pH of 7.79 was observed in Chi treatment combined with I2. The EC decreased due to applying anti-trispirants. Lowest EC of 1.14 dSm−1 was recorded by I2 × Chi. Anti-transpiration increased the contents of available nutrients in soil. Soil treated I3 gave the highest available nutrients. Sharp (2013) mentioned that chitosan has the ability to chelate the plant nutrients.

Table 6.

Soil pH, EC as well as available macro and micronutrients content in the soil after faba bean harvest as affected by irrigation regimes, anti-transpiration materials and their interaction over two growing seasons.

Irrigation Levels
m3ha−1 (I)		 Anti-Transpiration (A) pH (1:2.5) EC (dSm−1) Available macronutrients (mgkg−1)
 Available micronutrients (mgkg−1)
Fe Mn Zn Fe Mn Zn
I1 A0 7.88 1.35 a 36.70d 5.89 128.0f 1.98 3.55f 0.58d
A1 7.87 1.28bc 37.20 cd 6.04 133.0de 1.92 3.59def 0.62bcd
A2 7.87 1.26bcd 37.80 cd 6.12 136.0 cd 1.94 3.63bcdef 0.64abcd
A3 7.85 1.21d 38.10bcd 6.21 142.0ab 1.97 3.66abcde 0.67abcd



I2 A0 7.84 1.32b 37.90bcd 5.90 130.0ef 1.91 3.58ef 0.59 cd
A1 7.85 1.24cde 39.37abcd 6.10 134.0de 1.94 3.62cdef 0.64abcd
A2 7.83 1.20de 40.30abcd 6.16 138.0bc 1.95 3.68abcd 0.68abcd
A3 7.82 1.14e 41.53abc 6.25 144.0a 1.98 3.72ab 0.72abc



I3 A0 7.82 1.20d 39.60abcd 5.97 133.0de 1.93 3.59def 0.62bcd
A1 7.84 1.25 cd 41.20abc 6.13 138.67bc 1.96 3.64bcdef 0.69abcd
A2 7.80 1.14e 42.30ab 6.23 144.0a 1.98 3.69abc 0.73ab
A3 7.79 1.07f 43.0a 6.34 142.67a 2.04 3.74a 0.77a



Irrigation (I) I1 1.28a 37.45b 6.10 134.75b 1.93 3.61 0.63b
I2 1.23a 39.78ab 6.10 136.50ab 1.95 3.65 0.66ab
I3 1.15b 41.53a 6.17 139.58a 1.98 3.67 0.70a



Anti-Transpiration (A) A0 1.26a 38.10b 5.92 130.33d 1.91 3.57c 0.60b
A1 1.26a 39.26ab 6.10 135.22c 1.94 3.62bc 0.65ab
A2 1.20b 40.13ab 6.17 139.33b 1.96 3.67ab 0.68a
A3 1.14c 40.88a 6.27 142.89a 2.00 3.71a 0.72a



ANOVA I 0.007 0.034 0.851 0.040 0.751 0.117 0.034
A 0.011 0.121 0.584 0.001 0.407 <0.001 0.034
I × A <0.001 0.989 1.000 0.065 0.999 0.995 0.997
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Notes: 1. Anti-transpiration sources: A0, A1, A2 and A3 are; Non-Treated, Tryptophan, Potassium Silicate and Chitosan used as foliar spray, respectively. 2. Irrigation regimes: I1, I2 and I3 are; 2400, 3600 and 4800 m3 ha−1 respectively.

4. Discussion

Drought stress is one of the foremost affecting variables that seriously modify the plant physiology, definitely leading to the decline of crop productivity. In plants, it causes a set of morpho-anatomical, physiological, and biochemical changes. Drought stress adversely influences crop performance and weakens food security (El-Saadony et al., 2021a).

Biotic stresses, i.e., heavy metals, salinity, and drought have an impact on the mean performance of all studied characters as it reduced seed yield and its attributes, resulting in a decrease of chlorophylls related to photosynthesis, protein, carbohydrate, total phenols, amino acids, macronutrients (N, P, and K) and micronutrients (Fe, Mn, and Zn) contents and uptake (Desoky et al., 2020a, Desoky et al., 2020b, Desoky et al., 2020c, Elrys et al., 2019, Elrys et al., 2020). The reduction in these attributes was related to the degree of stress, phonological development, physiological and biochemical processes; therefore, plant productivity is adversely affected by drought exposure (Hag and Dalia, 2017). According to Reddy et al. (2003), water stress reduces photosynthesis by reducing stomatal conductance and decreasing leaf area; stomata close as a mechanism to minimize transpiration as moisture stress increases. As a result, the amount of carbon dioxide entering the atmosphere is diminished. If any crop is grown under adverse conditions such as the conditions of this study (irrigation interval-prolonging and sandy soil conditions), the plant stimulates its endogenous anti-transpiration system to develop or adapt against these conditions, but that is not enough; therefore, external anti-transpiration must be applied to increase the plant’s ability to protect itself under such conditions. Among this anti-transpiration, chitosan, tryptophan, and potassium silicate has been applied to many stressed crops. The foliar spray of faba bean with tryptophan, potassium silicate, and chitosan single or combined significantly reduced the transpiration and increased the yield quality and quantity properties. The coating with chitosan can form a semi-permeable film which may modify the internal atmosphere and decrease the transpiration loss of the leaves (Olivas and Barbosa-Cánovas, 2005). Also, chitosan has been found to exhibit potent antioxidant and antimicrobial activity (Ramírez et al., 2010, Abd El-Hack et al., 2020). Foliar application of chitosan can increase stomatal conductance and reduce transpiration or be applied as a coating material in seeds as SeNPs effect on wheat (El-Saadony et al., 2021b). Moreover, it can be effective in promoting chitinolytic microorganisms and prolonging storage life through post-harvest treatments, or benefit nutrient delivery to plants as it may prevent leaching and improve the slow release of nutrients in fertilizers (Shahrajabian et al., 2021). Mondal et al., 2012, Abu-Muriefah, 2013 applied chitosan through foliar spray (100–125 mg L−1) and obtained a positive response in nearly all plant traits as well as yield and plant N, P and K. This report achieved an enhancement in faba bean morphology, physiology, biochemistry, and productivity under drought stress. The beneficial effects of chitosan on plant growth can be linked to increased critical enzyme activity in nitrogen metabolism and improved nitrogen transit in functioning leaves, resulting in improved plant growth, quality, and water efficiency (Al-ahmadi, 2015, Górnik et al., 2008). This shows the effect of anti-transpirants in improving water efficiency under semi-arid conditions on pea-green yield (Lolicato, 2011, Maamoun and Hassan, 2013). El Nagar et al. (2012) noted that spraying with chitosan at a rate of 1% increased vegetable growth, yield, and component. Chitosan increased all growth properties of okra when applying anti-respirants (Ramadan and El Mesairy, 2015, Hidangmayum et al., 2019, Rendina et al., 2019, El Amerany et al., 2020).

The effect of chitosan on nutrients may be attributed to the increase in numbers of microbial populations in soil, and the transformation of organic nutrients into inorganic nutrients that are absorbed easily by plant roots (Abu-Muriefah, 2013, Bolto et al., 2004, Shehata et al., 2012). Also, the binding surface of chitosan can chelate ions containing N in compost (El Amerany et al., 2020). Chitosan application increased nutrient uptake in coffee seedlings (Minh and Anh, 2013). Romanazzi et al. (2017) stated that chitosan increased polyphenols in many fruits by activating relevant enzymes in the phenol production pathway, such as phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL). Rahman et al. (2018) noted that the application of chitosan (1000 ppm) increased the total flavonoid content in strawberry fruits. In addition, Salachna and Zawadzińska (2014) reported that spraying leaves of Freesia refracta with chitosan led to increases of N, P, and K of plants. The utilizing of chitosan can be maximized by converting to nano form by using the biological pathways, i.e., plant extract (Saad et al., 2021b) and microbial synthesis of nanomaterials (El-Saadony et al., 2020, Abd El-Hack et al., 2021, El-Saadony et al., 2021b, El-Saadony et al., 2021c). These pathways produce eco-friendly and cost-effective nanomaterials of small sizes with valuable biological activity (El-Saadony et al., 2021d, El-Saadony et al., 2021e, El-Saadony et al., 2021f). Therefore, the amount of chitosan is reduced and maximized.

5. Conclusion

Drought stress badly affects plants' physiology and productivity, leading to the deficiency of food security and economic losses. In addition, the increasing transpiration in the faba bean reduces the yield quality and quantity. The self-defense system of the plant is not sufficient to reduce the external or internal drought. The foliar application of extra anti-transpirants like chitosan, tryptophan, and potassium silicate improve the resistance of plants against biotic and abiotic stresses. Based on the obtained results, we recommended spraying faba bean plants with chitosan at 750 ppm under an irrigation level of 4800 m3 to improve plant quality and quantity.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgments

The current work was funded by Taif University Researchers Supporting Project number (TURSP - 2020/139), Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia

Footnotes

Peer review under responsibility of King Saud University.

Contributor Information

Sarah E.E. Fouda, Email: sarafouda_2002@yahoo.com.

Mohamed T. El-Saadony, Email: m_tlatelsadony@yahoo.com.

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