Skip to main content
NCBI home page
MicrobiologyOpen logoLink to MicrobiologyOpen
. 2022 Mar 16;11(2):e1273. doi: 10.1002/mbo3.1273

Genetically distant bacteriophages select for unique genomic changes in Enterococcus faecalis

Cydney N Johnson 1, Dennise Palacios Araya 2, Viviane Schink 1, Moutusee Islam 2, Mihnea R Mangalea 1, Emily K Decurtis 2, Tuong‐Vi C Ngo 2, Kelli L Palmer 2, Breck A Duerkop 1,✉
PMCID: PMC8924694  PMID: 35478284

Abstract

The human microbiota harbors diverse bacterial and bacteriophage (phage) communities. Bacteria evolve to overcome phage infection, thereby driving phage evolution to counter bacterial resistance. Understanding how phages select for genetic alterations in medically relevant bacteria is important as phages become established biologics for the treatment of multidrug‐resistant (MDR) bacterial infections. Before phages can be widely used as standalone or combination antibacterial therapies, we must obtain a deep understanding of the molecular mechanisms of phage infection and how host bacteria alter their genomes to become resistant. We performed coevolution experiments using a single Enterococcus faecalis strain and two distantly related phages to determine how phage pressure impacts the evolution of the E. faecalis genome. Whole‐genome sequencing of E. faecalis following continuous exposure to these two phages revealed mutations previously demonstrated to be essential for phage infection. We also identified mutations in genes previously unreported to be associated with phage infection in E. faecalis. Intriguingly, there was only one shared mutation in the E. faecalis genome that was selected by both phages tested, demonstrating that infection by two genetically distinct phages selects for diverse variants. This knowledge serves as the basis for the continued study of E. faecalis genome evolution during phage infection and can be used to inform the design of future therapeutics, such as phage cocktails, intended to target MDR E. faecalis.

Keywords: bacteriophages, coevolution, comparative genomics, Enterococcus faecalis

Characterizing the genetic mechanisms of bacteriophage‐bacteria interactions is critical for understanding how bacteria respond to and resist phage infection, and how phages evolve to counter such selection. This is especially relevant to the development of bacteriophage therapy against multidrug‐resistant bacterial infections. This study utilizes comparative genomic analyses to demonstrate how a pathogenic strain of Enterococcus faecalis responds to infection by two distantly related bacteriophages.

graphic file with name MBO3-11-e1273-g003.jpg

1. INTRODUCTION

Enterococcus faecalis is a Gram‐positive bacterium naturally residing as a commensal in the gastrointestinal tracts of animals, including humans (Lebreton et al., 2014). Immune suppression and/or antibiotic treatment promotes E. faecalis to outgrow and become a dominant member of the microbiota, leading to opportunistic infections (Ubeda et al., 2010). Strains of E. faecalis and Enterococcus faecium have acquired traits that allow them to survive host and environmental stresses, contributing to their success as pathogens (Lebreton et al., 2017; Tyne & Gilmore, 2014). The overuse of antibiotics in both medical and agricultural settings supports enterococcal pathogenesis by driving multidrug‐resistant (MDR) phenotypes (Gawryszewska et al., 2017; Munoz‐Price et al., 2005). As MDR E. faecalis infections continue to persist worldwide, there is a need to find alternative therapeutics capable of bypassing existing modes of antibiotic resistance (Esmail et al., 2019; Farman et al., 2019; Remschmidt et al., 2018).

Bacterial viruses, bacteriophages (phages), exist in high numbers in the intestinal tract where they infect and sometimes kill host bacteria, likely influencing the structure of the microbiota (Mangalea et al., 2021; Minot et al., 2013; Wandro et al., 2019). Due to their narrow host specificity and ability to lyse bacteria, phages are becoming an essential resource for the treatment of MDR bacterial infections (Kortright et al., 2019). Phage therapy offers many advantages over traditional antibiotics. For example, specificity can be tailored to target only the desired bacteria, leaving native microbes largely unaffected (Brives & Pourraz, 2020; Sulakvelidze et al., 2001). Additionally, phage replication is restricted to the abundance of the host, thus upon host exhaustion phages are depleted from the population (Moelling et al., 2018). In contrast, conventional antibiotics lack specificity, killing resident bacteria, and the compounds can remain in the patient after the infection has cleared (Langdon et al., 2016). There is an ever‐growing repertoire of phages that infect E. faecalis (Cook et al., 2021), making these promising candidates for phage therapy.

The development of successful phage therapies will require a complete understanding of the genetic interactions between phages and bacteria. Although phage therapy holds promise for the treatment of E. faecalis infections (Gelman et al., 2018; Khalifa et al., 2015), the molecular mechanisms of enterococcal phage infection and the bacterial host response to phage infection are understudied. Phage tail protein–receptor interactions underpin the molecular basis for phage strain specificity of the bacterial cell surface (Kabanova et al., 2019; Tu et al., 2017). To date, only the transmembrane protein PIPEF (phage infection protein of E. faecalis) has been identified as a bona fide enterococcal phage receptor (Duerkop et al., 2016). Both phages VPE25 and VFW bind to E. faecalis by engaging with cell surface polysaccharides, and infection proceeds following viral DNA entry which requires PIPEF (Duerkop et al., 2016). Studies in E. faecium have identified cell wall polysaccharides, secreted antigen A, and RNA polymerase to be involved in phage infection (Canfield et al., 2021; Wandro et al., 2019). Other studies have identified the enterococcal polysaccharide antigen (Epa) as a coreceptor for E. faecalis phages (Chatterjee et al., 2019; Ho et al., 2018).

Bacteria implement various mechanisms, including CRISPR‐Cas and restriction‐modification systems, to resist phage infection (Dupuis et al., 2013). However, spontaneous mutation is the main mechanism driving both phage resistance and phage‐bacteria coevolution (Oechslin, 2018). These spontaneous mutations are often located in genes encoding macromolecules found in the bacterial cell surface that prevents phage binding (Bishop‐Lilly et al., 2012; Denes et al., 2015; Eugster et al., 2015; Seed et al., 2012; Tu et al., 2017). To persist in the population, phages must mutate to counter host mutations; phage genomes are plastic, allowing for the accumulation of adaptive mutations (Burmeister et al., 2021; Koskella & Brockhurst, 2014). Although multiple studies evaluate bacterial mutations, and some evaluate phage mutations (Kupczok et al., 2018; Labrie & Moineau, 2007), during long‐term coevolution with pathogens posing a threat to human health (Denes et al., 2015; Eugster et al., 2015; Peters et al., 2020; Takeuchi et al., 2016), studies in clinically relevant enterococcal pathogens are limited. A recent experiment coevolving E. faecium and myophage EfV‐phi1 showed that phage tail fiber mutations helped overcome E. faecium phage resistance (Wandro et al., 2019).

To further our understanding of phage‐enterococcal interactions and their impact on genome evolution, we cocultured E. faecalis SF28073, an MDR strain resistant to vancomycin, gentamicin, and erythromycin, with two genetically distant phages, VPE25 and phage 47 (phi47) (Chatterjee et al., 2019; Duerkop et al., 2016). Both phages are long noncontractile‐tailed siphophages with double‐stranded DNA genomes and rely on the enterococcal polysaccharide antigen (Epa) for infection (Chatterjee et al., 2019, 2020). Epa of SF28073 has only been characterized based on predicted gene annotations (Palmer et al., 2012), and the biochemical structure has not been determined. The biochemical structure of Epa from a different MDR E. faecalis strain V583 has been determined (Guerardel et al., 2020). VPE25 has been confirmed to be a lytic phage (Duerkop et al., 2016), and we hypothesize that phi47 is lytic due to its lack of integrases, yet direct experiments need to be performed. Although both phages infect E. faecalis strain SF28073, nucleotide alignment revealed that their genomes only share 37.3% nucleotide identity, indicating they are genetically distinct. Orthologous protein clustering confirmed that these phages belong to unique enterococcal phage lineages. Based on these observations, we hypothesized that E. faecalis SF28073 may gain single‐nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in genes involved in cellular pathways and macromolecule production that are specific to infection by either phage. To test this hypothesis, we ran two parallel coculturing experiments. In this report, predation by phages VPE25 and phi47 selects for unique genetic subpopulations of E. faecalis SF28073. We identified mutations in known macromolecule‐encoding genes previously demonstrated to be necessary for E. faecalis phage infection; however, numerous novel mutations were also identified within a lower percentage of the E. faecalis population. Our work shows that surface‐associated factors are the major driver of E. faecalis phage resistance, yet genetic alterations emerge that implicate diverse metabolic pathways in the E. faecalis response to phage infection. Additionally, our data suggest that the ratio of phage to bacteria is an important factor when studying phage–bacterial coevolution in vitro, as bottlenecks during serial passage may favor phage extinction.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1. Routine bacterial culture

E. faecalis SF28073 (isolated from urine in 2003) (Oprea et al., 2004) was cultured in brain heart infusion (BHI, BD) medium at 37°C. Individual phi47‐resistant colonies were identified by inoculating washed bacterial samples from whole cultures into BHI and grown overnight at 37°C, normalizing overnight cultures to an optical density (OD) of 0.1, and serial dilutions were spotted onto THB agar containing 10 mM MgSO4 and 1 × 107 PFU/ml of phi47. Plates were incubated overnight at 37°C and resistant isolates were picked, grown overnight in BHI at 37°C, and DNA was extracted and sequenced following the methods described below.

2.2. Phage isolation and quantification

Bacteriophages VPE25 (Duerkop et al., 2016) and phage 47 (phi47) (Chatterjee et al., 2019) were propagated using E. faecalis strains V583 (VPE25) or SF28073 (phi47) and phage titers were quantified by double agar overlay plaque assays, as described previously (Chatterjee et al., 2019; Duerkop et al., 2016). For clonal phage isolation, plaques were removed from agar overlays using a sterile p1000 pipette tip or a glass Pasteur pipette. Agar plugs were suspended in 1 ml sterile SM‐plus buffer (100 mM NaCl, 50 mM Tris‐HCl, 8 mM MgSO4, 5 mM CaCl2 [pH 7.4]) and eluted overnight at 4°C. The eluted phages were filtered through a 0.45 μm syringe filter and stored at 4°C before phage titer determination by plaque assay.

2.3. Coevolution assay

Individual colonies of E. faecalis SF28073 were grown overnight. The next day, 108 colony‐forming units (CFU) of bacteria were inoculated into individual 125 ml flasks containing 25 ml of BHI broth supplemented with 10 mM MgSO4. Five flasks were infected with 105 plaque‐forming units (PFU) of phage VPE25 and five flasks with 105 PFU of phi47, originating from individual plaques. Bacteria‐only control cultures were included to identify mutations that arise due to laboratory passage in the absence of phage. All flasks were incubated at 37°C with shaking at 250 rpm. Every 24 h, the cultures were passaged by transferring 250 μl of the culture to flasks containing 25 ml of fresh BHI media supplemented with 10 mM MgSO4. At the time of passage, culture aliquots were removed for population DNA extraction and cryopreservation. For phi47, the culture media was centrifuged and filtered to isolate phages.

2.4. Testing bacterial cross‐resistance

From glycerol stocks of whole culture samples (bacteria and phage), BHI was inoculated, and the culture was grown overnight at 37°C with shaking at 250 rpm. Overnight cultures were washed three times with SM‐plus buffer to remove any extracellular phage. Bacterial pellets were resuspended in SM‐plus buffer and normalized to an OD of 0.1. Ten‐fold serial dilutions were spotted on THB agar plates containing 10 mM MgSO4 and 1 × 108 PFU/ml of VPE25 or phi47. Bacteria coevolved with phi47 were spotted on VPE25 plates while bacteria coevolved with VPE25 were spotted on phi47 plates. CFU/ml was enumerated after overnight incubation at 37°C. Relative viability was calculated by dividing the CFU/mL of bacteria grown on phage agar plates divided by CFU/ml of bacteria grown in the absence of phage.

2.5. DNA extraction for population sequencing

Genomic DNA was isolated from 1 ml culture aliquots from coevolution cultures consisting of phage and bacteria using a previously described protocol for E. faecalis (Manson et al., 2003). Briefly, samples were treated with 5 mg/ml lysozyme for 30 min at 37°C. In all, 0.5% SDS, 20 mM EDTA, and 50 μg/ml Proteinase K were added and incubated at 56°C for 1 h. Samples were cooled to room temperature before adding an equal volume of phenol/chloroform/isoamyl alcohol and extracted by shaking. Samples were centrifuged at 17,000 rcf for 1 min, and the aqueous layer was extracted with an equal volume of chloroform. Again, samples were centrifuged at 17,000 rcf for 1 min, and nucleic acids were precipitated from the aqueous layer by adding 0.3 M NaOAc [pH 7] and an equal volume of isopropanol. Nucleic acid was pelleted by centrifuging at 17,000 rcf for 30 min at 4°C, washed with 70% ethanol, and centrifuged at 17,000 rcf for 10 min. Finally, the pellet was dried and resuspended in sterile water. Genomic DNA was sequenced using the Illumina NextSeq. 2000 platform to 300 Mbp depth at the Microbial Genome Sequencing Center (MiGS).

2.6. Hybrid assembly of the E. faecalis SF28073 genome

The E. faecalis SF28703 genome was sequenced using Oxford Nanopore Technology (ONT) as described previously (Jain et al., 2016; Wick et al., 2017). Briefly, 1.5 μg genomic DNA was mechanically sheared into 8 kb fragments with a Covaris g‐tube per the manufacturer's instructions before library preparation with the ONT Ligation Sequencing Kit 1D (SQK‐LSK108). Libraries were base called with MinKNOW (v3.5.5) to generate FASTQ and fast5 sequence reads. Illumina reads were obtained from MiGS as described above. Programs for DNA sequencing read processing and read assembly were run using the operating system Ubuntu 18.04.4 LTS. FASTQ sequences were filtered to gather reads with q scores >9 and length >1000 bp using Nanofilt (v2.5.0) (De Coster et al., 2018). The adaptor sequences were trimmed from the filtered reads with Porechop (v0.2.3) (https://github.com/rrwick/Porechop). The processed MinION reads were coassembled with Illumina reads using Unicycler (v0.4.7) with the default setting “normal mode” (Wick et al., 2017). Incomplete assemblies were manually completed as described in the “Unicycler tips for finishing genome” page (https://github.com/rrwick/Unicycler/wiki/Tips-for-finishing-genomes). Briefly, Bandage (v0.8.1) was used to visualize the completion status of the assembly (Wick et al., 2015), and unassembled contig sequences were extracted. Using these unassembled contig sequences as baits, long reads from MinION sequences were gathered for incomplete regions using minimap2 (v2.11‐r797) and an in‐Bandage BLAST search was performed with the long reads against the graph (Li, 2018). If long reads supported the continuity of two unassembled contigs, then the Bandage graph editing function was used to duplicate, delete edges, and merge contigs. The complete assembly sequence was saved from Bandage in FASTA format.

2.7. Analysis of serially passaged bacterial populations using Illumina sequencing

Illumina reads from the bacterial populations obtained from MiGS were mapped to the assembled E. faecalis SF28073 chromosome (GenBank accession number CP060804) and the three endogenous plasmids (pSF1, CP060801; pSF2, CP060802; and pSF3, CP060803) using CLC Genomics Workbench (Qiagen) with default settings. Detailed read mapping statistics were generated using the “QC for read mapping” tool in CLC Genomics Workbench with default settings to obtain the range of coverage and zero coverage regions in each assembly. The “Find low coverage” tool in CLC Genomics Workbench with the low coverage threshold set at 0 was used to manually inspect the regions found by the quality analysis to contain regions with 0 coverage. Sequence variants were identified using the “Basic variant detection” tool with a minimum coverage of 100, the minimum frequency of 30% (count/coverage] × 100), and a ploidy of 0. All variants identified were manually examined, and mutations not altering the amino acid sequence (silent) were excluded from the analysis. Variants present in the bacteria‐only controls were also excluded from further analysis.

2.8. Phage 47 genome sequencing and analysis

Phi47 genomic DNA was isolated following the methods described above. The phi47 genome was assembled de novo from Illumina reads using CLC Genomics Workbench following the default parameters, with the largest contig forming the full genome. Genome annotation was performed using RAST and NCBI BLASTp (v2.0) (Altschul et al., 1990; Aziz et al., 2008). During coevolution with E. faecalis SF28073, culture media was filtered through a 0.45‐μm filter. DNA was extracted from filtered media using the proteinase K and phenol/chloroform method described above and sequenced using Illumina technology at MiGS. These reads were mapped to the wild‐type phi47 genome and SNPs were identified using CLC Genomic Workbench with a minimum coverage of 15, a minimum frequency of 30%, and a ploidy of 0.

2.9. OrthoMCL analysis

Enterococcal phage phylogeny was determined using OrthoMCL (Li et al., 2003) as described previously (Canfield et al., 2021). Enterococcal phage genomes were downloaded from the INPHARED phage genome database (Cook et al., 2021). As of July 1, 2021, there were 126 enterococcal phage genome sequences available in addition to our inclusion of the phi47 genome. Proteomes determined using Prodigal (Hyatt et al., 2010) were used as input into an OrthoMCL MySQL database. A cluster inflation value of 1.5 was used and the resulting matrix was input for ggdendro and ggplot2 packages in R version 3.6.3. The dendrogram was determined using the average linkage method for hierarchical clustering of Manhattan distance metrics.

3. RESULTS

3.1. Phi47 and VPE25 phages are genetically distinct

Phi47 and VPE25 are both siphoviruses belonging to the class Caudoviricetes (Chatterjee et al., 2019; Duerkop et al., 2016; Turner, Kropinski, et al., 2021). However, these phages differ in host range and genome content. VPE25 is a virulent phage capable of infecting numerous E. faecalis strains (Duerkop et al., 2016), including SF28073, while phi47 primarily infects SF28073 (Chatterjee et al., 2019). Phi47 depends on the enterococcal polysaccharide antigen (Epa) for adsorption to host cells (Chatterjee et al., 2019). EasyFig comparison of the phage genomes revealed only three shared genes (lines, Figure 1a) (Sullivan et al., 2011). These genes exhibit 67% or greater identity at the nucleotide level.

Figure 1.

Figure 1

Open in a new tab

Phi47 and phage VPE25 are genetically distinct. (a) EasyFig analysis shows three genes shared between phage 47 and VPE25. These genes are 67%–100% identical at the nucleotide level. (b) Genome annotation predicted the function of 29 open reading frames and 2 tRNAs. Open reading frames encoding proteins of similar functions are depicted in the same color. A similar figure for phage VPE25 can be found in the 2016 manuscript by Duerkop et al. Stars indicate the genes shared in Figure 1a. Lollipops represent genes with identified nonsynonymous mutations found in each culture. Lollipop color corresponds with culture number. (c) OrthoMCL was used to compare the phage 47 genome to all publicly available enterococcal phage genomes. A phylogenetic tree was generated from OrthoMCL. Height is the average linkage of hierarchical clustering with 1000 iterations using the Manhattan distance metric. In all, 126 enterococcal phage genomes from the INPHARED database were used for comparison to phi47 (in red text). Distinct phage orthoclusters are represented by colored boxes. Roman numerals next to shaded boxes designate the orthocluster number

The phi47 genome is 57,289 base pairs in length, consisting of 101 predicted open reading frames (ORFs) and two tRNAs. Using RAST genome annotation (Aziz et al., 2008) and the NCBI BLASTp platform, we characterized the phi47 genome based on functional classifications (Figure 1b). The genome exhibits typical modularity; meaning that tail, structural, and DNA replication genes are in proximity to genes of similar function. The remainder, and the majority of the genes, are predicted to be hypothetical. The genome organization for VPE25 has been previously published (Duerkop et al., 2016).

Comparative genomic analysis of phi47 was performed with all publicly available enterococcal phage genomes using OrthoMCL (Figure 1c) (Cook et al., 2021). This algorithm generates a phylogenetic tree of clustered phage genomes (orthoclusters) based on orthologous proteins (Bolocan et al., 2019; Canfield et al., 2021; Li et al., 2003). Of the 11 known orthoclusters (Bolocan et al., 2019; Canfield et al., 2021), phi47 is placed into cluster III, while VPE25 is in cluster X. Together, these genetic analyses demonstrate the lack of common genes between phages VPE25 and phi47, making them genetically distinct.

3.2. Phage infection of E. faecalis promotes mutations in cell wall macromolecule‐encoding genes necessary for phage infection, and unique mutations accumulate in a phage‐dependent manner

To identify bacterial mutations that confer phage resistance in E. faecalis SF28073, we conducted two independent coevolution experiments, infecting five replicate SF28073 cultures with phages derived from individual plaques of either phage VPE25 or phi47, and passaged these cultures for 14 consecutive days. Bacteria‐only controls were established and treated under identical conditions in the absence of phage infection. Genomic DNA from the bacterial populations was sequenced for each replicate at five‐time points (Days 0, 1, 3, 7, and 14). To identify mutations in the SF28073 genome, sequencing reads were mapped to the closed E. faecalis SF28073 reference genome generated in this study by a hybrid assembly of Illumina and Oxford Nanopore MinION sequencing reads. The assembled SF28073 genome consists of the chromosome and three endogenous plasmids designated pSF1, pSF2, and pSF3 (GenBank accession numbers CP060804, CP060801, CP060802, and CP060803, respectively).

Nonsynonymous, unique bacterial SNPs were observed in all experimental replicates, except in one of the VPE25‐challenged replicates where the mutation frequencies were below our 30% population‐wide cutoff. Interestingly, the mutations selected in E. faecalis SF28073 challenged with phage VPE25 largely differed from mutations in E. faecalis SF28073 challenged with phi47. As expected, we observed mutations in pip EF at one or more time points in all VPE25 challenged replicates, except the culture mentioned above which did not meet our read mapping cutoff (Table A1). We detected epa mutations in four of the cultures infected with phi47 (Table A2). These two macromolecules have been previously reported to be essential for successful infection of these phages; the integral membrane protein PIPEF is the receptor for VPE25, while both VPE25 and phi47 rely on the enterococcal polysaccharide antigen (Epa) for adsorption (Chatterjee et al., 2019, 2020; Duerkop et al., 2016).

We identified ccpA as the only common gene mutated when SF28073 was challenged with either VPE25 or phi47 (Tables A1 and A2). When exposed to phage VPE25, ccpA had mutations in two replicates which appeared at different time points (Days 7 and 14, Table A1), while exposure to phi47 resulted in one replicate harboring a ccpA mutation on Day 14 (Table A2). In E. faecalis, catabolite control protein A (CcpA) plays a key role in regulating the transcription of proteins involved in carbon source utilization (Gao et al., 2013). Moreover, both experimental groups had mutations arise in different components of the SUF system, which is involved in the iron–sulfur (Fe–S) cluster assembly pathway (Srour et al., 2020) (Tables A1 and A2). One VPE25‐challenged replicate had a mutation in sufU, encoding a sulfur relay protein (Srour et al., 2020), while one phi47‐challenged replicate had a mutation in sufD. Both mutations were identified on Day 7 and were maintained until Day 14. This suggests that both phages may utilize bacterial iron–sulfur complexes during infection. We also found a mutation in the gene manX which was identified in one replicate challenged with VPE25. manX is a component of the manXYZ operon encoding a protein complex involved in the transportation of mannose as well as other carbohydrates (Plumbridge, 1998).

Additionally, one replicate challenged with phage VPE25 had mutations in genes encoding a putative restriction‐modification (R–M) system, located within the two specificity (S) subunit genes, specifically genes H9Q64_13860, and H9Q64_13845 (Table A1). In R–M systems, the S subunit genes, composed of two target recognition domains, recognize specific DNA sequences thereby providing target specificity to the R–M complex (Gao et al., 2011). On Day 7, both subunits shared missense mutations resulting in amino acid changes from leucine to phenylalanine and lysine to glutamine. Surprisingly, on Day 14 these mutations were no longer detected, suggesting that they rendered these cells less fit in the population. Other nonsynonymous mutations specific to each S subunit gene were also found on Day 7. These two mutations were observed again on Day 14 at higher frequencies, which on the contrary, suggest that these mutations provided a fitness advantage to the population. Lastly, Day 14 revealed two additional mutations in both S subunit‐encoding genes that were not present on Day 7. The numerous amino acid changes observed across the S subunits of the R–M system suggest these mutations may be increasing the specificity of the subunit S towards recognizing the VPE25 genome.

When E. faecalis SF28073 coevolved with phi47, we observed three genes mutated across multiple replicates (Table A2). H9Q64_01755, a predicted transposase, was mutated in two replicates. Both replicates had the same mutation resulting in a change from arginine 144 to leucine. H9Q64_09795 was also mutated in two replicates. This gene, epaAC, is a predicted epimerase/dehydratase (Guerardel et al., 2020). Lastly, H9Q64_09850 was mutated in three replicates. This gene is epaR, the final gene in the rhamnose‐sugar biosynthesis locus of epa that is a predicted priming glycosyltransferase (Guerardel et al., 2020). Epa is involved in phage adsorption (Chatterjee et al., 2019; Ho et al., 2018), making this gene essential for successful phi47 infection.

We looked closer at the distribution of these mutations among single clones to better understand their distribution in the population. We sequenced a total of seven colonies, all of which are resistant to phi47, corresponding to Day 7 Cultures 1, 4, and 5 (Table A3). We selected Day 7 since it was the last sample where the bacteria were cocultured with phi47, and these cultures were selected due to their different phi47 kinetics on Day 7 (Figure 2). We observed epa mutations in all seven colonies, including those derived from Culture 4, indicating that the frequency of epa mutations in Culture 4 was below our limit of detection by whole‐genome sequencing but can be resolved when analyzing single clones. All of the isolates from Culture 1 shared mutations in ptsP, sufD, and a transposase.

Figure 2.

Figure 2

Open in a new tab

Phi47 kinetics differ in each experimental replicate. Bars represent the CFU/ml shown on the left Y‐axis, lines represent the PFU/ml shown on the right Y‐axis. Lines and bars of the same color represent E. faecalis SF28073 and phi47 titers, respectively. Bars represent the mean of three technical replicates, while lines are a single biological replicate. Additional plaque assays were performed to identify when phi47 became undetectable in each culture

To determine if the mutations protected SF28073 from infection by other phages, we challenged bacteria from Day 7 cultures with the phage it was not challenged with (Figure 3).

Figure 3.

Figure 3

Open in a new tab

Resistance to phi47 protects bacteria from VPE25 infection. Serial dilutions of Day 7 bacterial communities were challenged with the opposite phage that the bacteria was coevolved with. (a) E. faecalis SF28073 that was coevolved with phi47 was challenged with VPE25. (b) E. faecalis SF28073 that was coevolved with VPE25 was challenged with phi47. Multiple comparisons using a one‐way ANOVA. **p ≤ 0.01, ****p ≤ 0.0001

Bacteria from Day 7 cultures were grown overnight, normalized to an OD of 0.1, and spotted on agar plates that contain phage, or agar without phage. Bacteria that were coevolved with phi47 are resistant to infection by VPE25 (Figure 3a), while bacteria that were coevolved with VPE25 are susceptible to phi47 infection (Figure 3b).

3.3. Phi47 acquires mutations in tail and hypothetical genes during coevolution with E. faecalis SF28073

Phi47 is an uncharacterized phage; little is known about genes required for phi47 infection other than its dependence on Epa (Chatterjee et al., 2019). To further explore the mechanisms of phi47 infection, we enumerated both phi47 and E. faecalis SF28073 to determine the population kinetics for each experimental replicate (Figure 2) and sequenced the phi47 population throughout our experiment. We observed different phage abundance patterns across the five replicates, despite each being treated identically. While all replicates had an expected spike in phi47 titer on Day 1 after 24 h of replication in a completely susceptible population, and a reduction in titer on Day 3, phage abundance differed for each replicate on Day 7 (Figure 2). Culture 1 phi47 titer spiked and was followed by a continuous decline until phi47 was no longer detectable in the culture via plaque assay by Day 11. Cultures 2 and 3 had no detectable phi47 on Day 7. Cultures 4 and 5 had low phage titers on Day 7. Culture 4 had a phi47 spike on Day 9 followed by a decline until it was no longer detected on Day 12, and phi47 was undetectable in Culture 5 by Day 9.

Due to the differences observed in phi47 abundance throughout these experiments, we sequenced the phage population of each replicate on Days 0, 1, 3, and 7. Day 14 was excluded from analysis because no replicate had detectable phages by plaque assay. Sequencing of phage DNA revealed that each culture had a unique mutation profile. Table 3 in the Appendix (Table A3) includes all observed mutations, including those in intergenic regions and synonymous changes. In our analysis, we were most interested in SNPs that result in nonsynonymous changes. Phages from Cultures 2 and 3 acquired the most SNPs, but viable phages were undetectable at Day 7, suggesting that these acquired mutations in the various tail and hypothetical protein‐encoding genes may have been deleterious to the phages' ability to overcome bacterial resistance mutations. Phages from Cultures 3 and 4 developed identical tail SNPs on Day 7. While there were no infectious phages detectable by plaque assay in Culture 3 on Day 7, we were still able to recover phage DNA in culture media, allowing us to perform genetic analyses. Culture 5 phages only developed one SNP in the gene encoding the tail fiber protein on Day 3, which was maintained on Day 7. Culture 1 phages developed no SNPs. Interestingly, there are three hypothetical genes, the major tail protein gene, and one tRNA that were mutated in phages across multiple cultures (Table A4). Despite the different mutations observed across replicates, phi47 was not detectable in any of the cultures by the end of the passaging, indicating that these phages were unable to subvert phage resistance leading to the inability to detect them by our methods.

4. DISCUSSION

E. faecalis is a commensal and nosocomial pathogen and is becoming increasingly resistant to last‐resort antibiotics (Turner, Lee, et al., 2021). In this study, we show the coevolution of E. faecalis SF28073 with two genetically distinct phages, VPE25 and phi47. Our results reveal that each phage selects for different E. faecalis mutations, indicating that genetically unique phages select different genetic compositions within the population. In particular, for both phages, E. faecalis developed missense mutations in genes encoding cell wall macromolecules, specifically PIPEF and Epa, that are required for successful infection by VPE25 and phi47, respectively (Chatterjee et al., 2019; Duerkop et al., 2016). VPE25 has recently been shown to depend on Epa (Chatterjee et al., 2020), most likely for adsorption to the cells. Because PIPEF and Epa are essential for successful phage infection, mutations in these genes prevent phage infection. Despite this, we observed no epa mutations in cultures challenged with VPE25, suggesting that pip EF mutations are dominant and potentially more advantageous than epa mutations, likely due to fitness costs (Chatterjee et al., 2019; Ho et al., 2018). SNPs in pip EF and epa indicate that phage receptor and coreceptor mutations are common to prevent phage infection. Additionally, many enterococcal phages rely on Epa for adsorption to cells (Al‐Zubidi et al., 2019; Canfield et al., 2021; Chatterjee et al., 2019, 2020; Ho et al., 2018). In this study, we show that epa mutations are abundant when the bacteria are challenged with phi47. Mutations in epa genes also protect bacteria against VPE25 infection (Figure 3a). Therefore, if phi47 were to be used in a therapeutic cocktail with other Epa‐dependent enterococcal phages, epa mutations could reduce the effectiveness of the cocktail. If the bacteria develop dominant mutations in alternative phage receptors, such as pip EF , Epa will remain intact. This could promote infection by Epa‐dependent phages that utilize receptors other than pip EF (Figure 3b). Our data suggest that VPE25 and phi47 could be useful in combination as a therapeutic cocktail, yet there remains a need to identify Epa‐independent phages for inclusion in future therapeutic phage cocktails.

Mutations in ccpA were found in cultures challenged with both VPE25 and phi47. CcpA, a transcriptional regulator, plays a central role in the catabolite control mechanism, regulating transcription in response to carbon source availability (Carvalho et al., 2011; Gao et al., 2013; Muscariello et al., 2001). Phage infection and development are determined by bacterial host factors such as nutritional state (Li et al., 2003). A recent study showed that carbon source is an important factor in phage production (Silva et al., 2021). A previous study using Bacillus subtilis showed that phage 29 infection downregulated CcpA‐dependent genes. The authors propose that repression of genes involved in the utilization of specific carbon sources keeps B. subtilis in a metabolic state ideal for phage development (Li et al., 2003), suggesting a link between CcpA and optimal phage production. It is possible that nonsynonymous mutations in ccpA alter carbohydrate metabolism. Studies focused on transcription during bacteria and phage coevolution could reveal deeper insights into the impact of ccpA mutation. Studies in streptococci have established a role for CcpA in the control of virulence factors and carbohydrate metabolism (Carvalho et al., 2011). We cannot rule out the possibility that CcpA may be directly involved in the regulation of epa transcription or indirectly involved by regulating genes responsible for the production of Epa precursors. Either circumstance could influence the production of Epa thereby affecting phage infection.

A mutation in the gene manX, a component of the manXYZ operon, was found in one replicate infected with VPE25. The ManXYZ protein complex is a transporter for mannose as well as other molecules, such as N‐acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) (Plumbridge, 1998). Interestingly, analysis of Epa from two E. faecalis strains revealed the presence of GlcNac (Guerardel et al., 2020). In addition, a coevolution study using phage ΦSA012 and its host, Staphylococcus aureus SA003, demonstrated that the phage receptor‐binding protein binds to α‐GlcNAc in wall teichoic acids (Takeuchi et al., 2016). Combined, these data suggest that mutations in the manX gene could have an impact on the production of Epa or other exopolysaccharides involved in phage adsorption, likely affecting phage infection.

We also show that phi47 develops mutations during coculture with its host. Phages from Cultures 3 and 4 developed identical mutations in the gene encoding the major tail protein on Day 7. However, Culture 3 had no phages detectable by plaque assay on that day, suggesting that these phages were unable to overcome the bacterial mutations in cell wall‐associated genes, such as epa. Phages in Culture 4 developed the same major tail protein mutations before the bacteria developed epa mutations, suggesting that the major tail protein mutations arose independently of host epa mutations. Despite these novel mutations, phi47 could not be maintained in the experimental cultures.

While there is currently only one paper investigating phage and Enterococcus coevolution (Wandro et al., 2019), numerous coevolution studies have been performed with other Gram‐positive bacteria and their phages (Peters et al., 2020; Takeuchi et al., 2016) and the model organism E. coli and its phages. For example, in one study E. coli and phage T3 were coevolved in a chemostat, allowing for a controlled experimental environment. Under this condition, the authors observed common bacterial mutations at the gene level and phage mutations at the codon level across experimental replicates (Perry et al., 2015). We believe that our current study both supports and contradicts these findings. In our study, four of the five cultures challenged with phage VPE25 developed mutations in pip EF. This maintains the conclusion that bacterial mutations in response to phage pressure reproducibly occur at the gene level. However, cultures challenged with phi47 showed more variability among E. faecalis genomic mutations across replicates. While phi47 developed some mutations that were shared across multiple cultures, each culture had a unique phage SNP profile. This outcome may depend on the phage–host bacterial pair used in coevolution experiments, the specific MOI used to initially infect the cultures, or the growth conditions tested.

Lack of reproducibility in coevolution experiments may be due to abiotic selection pressures, meaning that divergence among experimental replicates can increase via random events occurring in each population over time. This argues for a more controlled and consistent experimental design, such as a chemostat for continuous culturing, that may reduce stochastic events. We believe that our experimental design, which included manual daily subculturing, may have introduced bottlenecks causing a selection bias for the growth and preservation of bacteria while causing phages to fall below our detection limit. In our experiments, we inoculated each flask with ~108 CFU of E. faecalis SF28073 and ~105 PFU of phage (MOI 0.001). A similar ratio (MOI 0.003) was used to study phage‐E. faecium coevolution (Perry et al., 2015). However, for the E. faecium study, passaging was performed at a 1:10 ratio, transferring every 12 h for a total of 16 times, while we implemented a passage ratio of 1:100, transferring every 24 h for 14 days.

A study in E. coil used a chemostat with an MOI of 2, showing that in this setting coevolution happened in the form of adaptation and counter‐adaptation (Mizoguchi et al., 2003). While we began to observe phage extinction by Day 7, the phage population in the above‐mentioned E. faecium study was maintained in all cultures throughout the experiment. We speculate that the small volume we subcultured, the low starting MOI, and the fact that there were magnitudes more bacterial cells than phage in the population, may have caused a significant decrease in the number of phages passaged, thus introducing a bottleneck that ultimately eliminated the phage from the population.

Our study highlights the importance of considering experimental design such as MOI and subculturing methods when studying the coevolution of phages and their hosts to prevent the introduction of bottlenecks. Similar to studies using transposon‐insertion libraries that can be confounded by the presence of bottlenecks (Abel et al., 2015), bottlenecks could prevent the discovery of novel genes involved in phage infection by limiting the presence of the phages in the population. Future studies should consider our methods and modify them to support continuous phage replication—for instance, using higher volumes if manually passaging, implementing a higher starting MOI, and the use of continuous culturing systems.

CONFLICTS OF INTEREST

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

ETHICS STATEMENT

None required.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

Cydney N. Johnson: conceptualization (equal), data curation (equal), formal analysis (equal), funding acquisition (equal), investigation (equal), methodology (equal), supervision (equal), validation (equal), visualization (equal), writing—original draft (equal), writing—review & editing (equal). Dennise P. Araya: conceptualization (equal), data curation (equal), formal analysis (equal), investigation (equal), methodology (equal), supervision (equal), validation (equal), visualization (equal), writing—original draft (equal), writing—review & editing (equal). Viviane Schink: data curation (supporting), formal analysis (supporting), investigation (supporting), methodology (supporting). Moutusee Islam:  data curation (supporting), formal analysis (supporting), methodology (supporting). Mihnea R. Mangalea: data curation (supporting), formal analysis (supporting), funding acquisition (equal), methodology (supporting), writing—review & editing (supporting). Emily Decurtis: data curation (supporting), formal analysis (supporting), investigation (supporting). Tuong‐Vi C. Ngo:  data curation (supporting), formal analysis (supporting), investigation (supporting). Kelli Palmer: conceptualization (equal), data curation (equal), formal analysis (equal), funding acquisition (equal), methodology (equal), project administration (equal), resources (equal), supervision (equal), writing—review & editing (equal). Breck Duerkop: conceptualization (equal), data curation (equal), formal analysis (equal), funding acquisition (equal), methodology (equal), project administration (equal), resources (equal), supervision (equal), writing—review & editing (equal).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study was supported by National Institutes of Health grants R01AI141479 (B. A. D.), R01AI116610 (K. L. P.), T32AI052066 (C. N. J.), F31AI157050 (C. N. J.), and T32AR007534 (M. R. M.). We thank Dr. Michael Gilmore for providing E. faecalis SF28073.

 

See Tables A1, A2, A3, and A4

Table A1.

Mutations present in E. faecalis SF28073 challenged with VPE25

Culture Position Gene Predicted function AA Change Frequency (%)
Day 1
1 1081166 H9Q64_06285 Phage Infection Protein (PIP) Ser36* 99
2 1081166 H9Q64_06285 Phage Infection Protein (PIP) Ser36* 96
4 1081166 H9Q64_06285 Phage Infection Protein (PIP) Ser36* 87
2429489 Intergenic region Downstream of H9Q64_13025 NA 94
Day 3
2 1079889 H9Q64_06285 Phage Infection Protein (PIP) Gln462* 33
2914320 H9Q64_15390 PTS mannose/fructose/sorbose transporter family subunit IID Asn88fs 33
Day 7
1 2912438 manX ManX Asn77Lys 49
1081166 H9Q64_06285 Phage Infection Protein (PIP) Ser36* 99
2 2576910, 2576915, 2576930 H9Q64_13860 Restriction endonuclease subunit S Leu166Phe, Glu165Lys, Thr160Ala 30, 39, 40
2573919, 2573916, 2573901 H9Q64_13845 Restriction endonuclease subunit S Leu181Phe, Lys180Glu, Ala175Thr 32, 37, 39
4 1079220 H9Q64_06285 Phage Infection Protein (PIP) Ser685fs 56
2520234 Intergenic region Downstream of H9Q64_13605 NA 30
240029 ccpA Catabolite control protein A Asn27Ile 58
5 1079058 H9Q64_06285 Phage Infection Protein (PIP) Ile739fs 39
1963417 sufU SufU, component of the SUF system Thr70Ile 40
Day 14
1 240229 ccpA Catabolite control protein A Tyr94Asn 33
2912438 manX ManX Asn77Lys 43
1858079 Intergenic region Upstream of H9Q64_10120 NA 37
1081166 H9Q64_06285 Phage Infection Protein (PIP) Ser36* 96
2 2576939, 2576930 H9Q64_13860 Restriction endonuclease subunit S Asn157Asp, Thr160Ala 47, 56
2573891, 2573901 H9Q64_13845 Restriction endonuclease subunit S Asp172Asn, Ala175Thr 43, 83
5 1079058 H9Q64_06285 Phage Infection Protein (PIP) Ile739fs 71
1157154 Intergenic region Upstream of H9Q64_06630 NA 46
1963417 sufU SufU, component of the SUF system Thr70Ile 72
Open in a new tab

Note: Mutations found in bacterial controls are excluded from this final list. NA indicates no change in amino acid. The *indicate a codon change to a stop codon.

Table A2.

Mutations present in E. faecalis SF28073 challenged with phi47

Culture Position Gene Predicted function AA change Frequency (%)
Day 1
None detected
Day 3
4 127840 H9Q64_RS01755 Transposase Arg144Leu 97
Day 7
1 1233173 ptsP Phosphoenolpyruvate‐protein phosphotransferase Asp267Ala 70
1432264 Intergenic region Upstream of H9Q64_RS07940 NA 33
1779309 H9Q64_RS09795 Epimerase, epaAC Glu208* 66
1965247 sufD FeS assembly protein Arg295Gln 66
2429489 H9Q64_RS13020 16S ribosomal RNA NA 93
2 1779359 H9Q64_RS09795 Epimerase, epaAC Gly191Asp 31
4 127840 H9Q64_RS01755 Transposase Arg144Leu 97
Day 14
1 240867 ccpA Catabolite control protein A, transcription negative regulator Leu306Phe 34
1233173 ptsP Phosphoenolpyruvate‐protein phosphotransferase Asp267Ala 32
1451382 H9Q64_RS08040 DUF1189 domain‐containing protein Ala133Thr 42
1779309 H9Q64_RS09795 Epimerase, epaAC Glu208* 36
1793154 H9Q64_RS09850 Sugar transferase, epaR Pro320Leu 43
1965247 sufD FeS assembly protein Arg295Gln 31
2 1779359 H9Q64_RS09795 Epimerase, epaAC Gly191Asp 43
3 1793226 H9Q64_RS09850 Sugar transferase, epaR Thr296Ile 43
4 1157622 Intergenic region NA 39
5 1234192 H9Q64_RS06955 Directly upstream of ptsP, phosphocarrier protein HPr Ala16Val 44
1793154 H9Q64_RS09850 Sugar transferase, epaR Pro320Leu 52
Open in a new tab

Note: Mutations found in bacterial controls are excluded from this final list. NA indicates no change in amino acid. The *indicate a codon change to a stop codon.

Table A3.

Mutations present in single phage‐resistant colonies of E. faecalis SF28073 challenged with phi47

Isolate Position Overlapping annotations Predicted function Amino acid change Frequency (%)

Culture 1

Colony 1

 127840 H9Q64_RS01755 Transposase Arg144Leu 97
1233173 ptsP Phosphoenolpyruvate‐protein phosphotransferase Asp267Ala 100
1284755 H9Q64_RS07195 MATE family efflux transporter NA 100
1779309 H9Q64_RS09795 Epimerase, epaAC Glu208* 100
1965247 sufD FeS assembly protein Arg295Gln 100

Culture 1

Colony 2

 127840 H9Q64_RS01755 Transposase Arg144Leu 99
1233173 ptsP Phosphoenolpyruvate‐protein phosphotransferase Asp267Ala 99
1779309 H9Q64_RS09795 Epimerase, epaAC Glu208* 99
1965247 sufD FeS assembly protein Arg295Gln 99

Culture 1

Colony 3

 127840 H9Q64_RS01755 Transposase Arg144Leu 98
1233173 ptsP Phosphoenolpyruvate‐protein phosphotransferase Asp267Ala 100
1284755 H9Q64_RS07195 MATE family efflux transporter NA 100
1779309 H9Q64_RS09795 Epimerase, epaAC Glu208* 100
1965247 sufD FeS assembly protein Arg295Gln 99
2429489 H9Q64_RS13020 16S ribosomal RNA NA 96

Culture 4

Colony 1

 1779485 H9Q64_RS09795 Epimerase, epaAC Ala149Asp 99
2909682 H9Q64_RS15370 Sigma 54‐dependent transcriptional regulator Ala439insValLys 82

Culture 5

Colony 1

 127840 H9Q64_RS01755 Transposase Arg144Leu 33
1234192 H9Q64_RS06955 Directly upstream of ptsP, phosphocarrier protein HPr Ala16Val 100
1793154 H9Q64_RS09850 Sugar transferase, epaR Pro320Leu 100

Culture 5

Colony 2

 1488410 H9Q64_RS08225 PTS mannitol transporter subunit IICBA Met1? 99
1792160 H9Q64_RS09845 Glucosyltransferase, epaS Gln141* 100

Culture 5

Colony 3

 1779552 H9Q64_RS09795 Epimerase, epaAC Val127Phe 99
2910925 H9Q64_RS15370 Sigma 54‐dependent transcriptional regulator Ile854fs 99
Open in a new tab

Note: Mutations found in bacterial controls are excluded from this final list. NA indicates no change in amino acid. The *indicate a codon change to a stop codon.

Table A4.

Mutations present in phi47 coevolved with E. faecalis SF28073

Culture Position Reference Allele Annotation AA change Frequency (%)
Day 1
None detected
Day 3
2 2678 T G Upstream of tail fiber protein NA 100
7802 ‐ T Minor capsid protein Thr594fs 100
15447 T A Hypothetical protein NA 98
15450 A C NA 98
21557 A T Hypothetical protein NA 100
21559 A T Glu112Val 100
21562 G T Arg113Leu 100
27538 C G Hypothetical protein Glu4Gln 31
29858 T A Upstream of hypothetical protein NA 100
29860 T A Upstream of hypothetical protein NA 100
29876 G A Hypothetical protein Pro122Leu 100
31004 C ‐ Hypothetical proteina Val14fs 39
31009 ‐ A Lys12fs 56
31285 C G Hypothetical protein Arg51Thr 99
33015 T A Hypothetical protein Lys88Ile 100
34228 C ‐ Hypothetical proteina Gly59fs 52
35922 A ‐ Hypothetical protein Ser94fs 100
41444 T ‐ Hypothetical protein Asn59fs 91
44217 ‐ A RuvC‐like crossover junction endodeoxyribonuclease Gln54fs 93
45366 C G Hypothetical proteina Glu126Asp 100
45368 C G Glu126Gln 100
45373 A T Met124Lys 100
46212 C A Upstream of HNH endonuclease NA 100
50818 C T Hypothetical proteina NA 92
52148 GG TA tRNA‐Pseudo‐TGAa NA 100
52155 C T NA 100
52164 CCAA TTGC NA 100
52171 C G NA 100
52178 A C NA 100
52184 AT GA NA 100
55247 ‐ C Hypothetical protein Arg63fs 94
3 11561 AA G Upstream of phage tail protein NA 69
31004 C ‐ Hypothetical proteina Val14fs 63
31009 ‐ A Lys12fs 37
31040 T ‐ Met2fs 50
31057 T G Upstream of hypothetical protein NA 89
31060 C A Upstream of hypothetical protein NA 89
48552 A ‐ DNA replication protein Asn108fs 69
48556 ‐ G Lys106fs 69
50818 C T Hypothetical proteina NA 100
52155 C T tRNA‐Pseudo‐TGAa NA 100
52164 CCAA TTGC NA 100
52171 C G NA 100
52178 A C NA 100
52184 AT GA NA 96
5 100 A C Tail fiber protein Val859Gly 95
Day 7
2 27651 ‐ TG Hypothetical protein Asp48fs 67
27651 C T NA 33
27652 ‐ T Asp48fs 67
27655 T C Asn46Ser 67
27657 C A Met45Ile 67
31004 C ‐ Hypothetical proteina Val14fs 44
31009 ‐ A Lys12fs 53
31040 T ‐ Met2fs 53
52171 C G tRNA‐Pseudo‐TGAa NA 95
52178 A C NA 96
52184 AT GA NA 96
3 10451 C T Major tail proteina Val217Ile 100
10453 G A Ala216Val 100
10457 ‐ C Thr215fs 100
10459 T C Asn214Ser 100
10463 C ‐ Val213fs 100
28104 C T Hypothetical protein Glu4Lys 100
28107 G A Pro3Ser 100
28114 GG ‐ Upstream of hypothetical protein NA 100
31004 C ‐ Hypothetical proteina Val14fs 36
31009 ‐ A Lys12fs 64
31040 T ‐ Met2fs 56
31057 T G Upstream of hypothetical protein NA 89
31060 C A Upstream of hypothetical protein NA 88
34228 C ‐ Hypothetical proteina NA
45366 C G Hypothetical proteina Glu126Asp 100
45368 C G Glu126Gln 100
45373 A T Met124Lys 100
48167 G ‐ DNA replication protein Arg236fs 100
48184 T C Glu230Gly 100
50818 C T Hypothetical protein NA 100
52155 C T tRNA‐Pseudo‐TGAa NA 100
52164 CCAA TTGC NA 100
52171 C G NA 100
52178 A C NA 100
52184 AT GA NA 100
4 10451 C T Major tail proteina Val217Ile 38
10453 G A Ala216Val 38
10457 ‐ C Thr215fs 35
10459 T C Asn214Ser 35
10463 C ‐ Val213fs 33
17578 ‐ C Phage terminase, large subunit Tyr358fs 50
52171 C G tRNA‐Pseudo‐TGAa NA 37
52178 A C NA 37
52184 AT GA NA 34
5 100 A C Tail fiber protein Val859Gly 93
31516 ‐ C Upstream of hypothetical protein NA 35
31520 TT AA Upstream of hypothetical protein NA 35
Open in a new tab

Note: NA indicates no change in amino acid.

a

Genes mutated across multiple cultures.

Johnson, C. N. , Palacios Araya, D. , Schink, V. , Islam, M. , Mangalea, M. R. , Decurtis, E. K. , Ngo, T.‐V. , Palmer, K. L. , & Duerkop, B. A. (2022). Genetically distant bacteriophages select for unique genomic changes in Enterococcus faecalis . MicrobiologyOpen, 11, e1273. 10.1002/mbo3.1273

Cydney N. Johnson and Dennise Palacios Araya contributed equally to this work.

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

All data are provided in full in this paper, except for raw Illumina DNA sequencing reads. Sequencing reads are available at the European Nucleotide Archive (ENA) under project accession PRJEB48380: http://www.ebi.ac.uk/ena/browser/view/PRJEB48380

REFERENCES

  1. Abel, S. , Abel zur Wiesch, P. , Davis, B. M. , & Waldor, M. K. (2015). Analysis of bottlenecks in experimental models of infection. PLoS Pathog, 11, e1004823. 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004823 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Altschul, S. F. , Gish, W. , Miller, W. , Myers, E. W. , & Lipman, D. J. (1990). Basic local alignment search tool. Journal of Molecular Biology, 215, 403–410. 10.1016/S0022-2836(05)80360-2 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Al‐Zubidi, M. , Widziolek, M. , Court, E. K. , Gains, A. F. , Smith, R. E. , Ansbro, K. , Alrafaie, A. , Evans, C. , Murdoch, C. , Mesnage, S. , Douglas, C. W. I. , Rawlinson, A. , & Stafford, G. P. (2019). Identification of novel bacteriophages with therapeutic potential that target Enterococcus faecalis . Infection and Immunity, 87, e00512–e00519. 10.1128/IAI.00512-19 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Aziz, R. K. , Bartels, D. , Best, A. A. , DeJongh, M. , Disz, T. , Edwards, R. A. , Formsma, K. , Gerdes, S. , Glass, E. M. , Kubal, M. , Meyer, F. , Olsen, G. J. , Olson, R. , Osterman, A. L. , Overbeek, R. A. , McNeil, L. K. , Paarmann, D. , Paczian, T. , Parrello, B. , … Zagnitko, O. (2008). The RAST Server: Rapid Annotations using Subsystems Technology. BMC Genomics, 9, 75. 10.1186/1471-2164-9-75 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Bishop‐Lilly, K. A. , Plaut, R. D. , Chen, P. E. , Akmal, A. , Willner, K. M. , Butani, A. , Dorsey, S. , Mokashi, V. , Mateczun, A. J. , Chapman, C. , George, M. , Luu, T. , Read, T. D. , Calendar, R. , Stibitz, S. , & Sozhamannan, S. (2012). Whole genome sequencing of phage resistant Bacillus anthracis mutants reveals an essential role for cell surface anchoring protein CsaB in phage AP50c adsorption. Virology Journal, 9, 246. 10.1186/1743-422X-9-246 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Bolocan, A. S. , Upadrasta, A. , Bettio, P. H. A. , Clooney, A. G. , Draper, L. A. , Ross, R. P. , & Hill, C. (2019). Evaluation of phage therapy in the context of Enterococcus faecalis and its associated diseases. Viruses, 11. 10.3390/v11040366 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Brives, C. , & Pourraz, J. (2020). Phage therapy as a potential solution in the fight against AMR: Obstacles and possible futures. Palgrave Commun, 6, 100. 10.1057/s41599-020-0478-4 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  8. Burmeister, A. R. , Sullivan, R. M. , Gallie, J. , & Lenski, R. E. (2021). Sustained coevolution of phage Lambda and Escherichia coli involves inner‐ as well as outer‐membrane defences and counter‐defences. Microbiology, 167. 10.1099/mic.0.001063 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Canfield, G. S. , Chatterjee, A. , Espinosa, J. , Mangalea, M. R. , Sheriff, E. K. , Keidan, M. , McBride, S. W. , McCollister, B. D. , Hang, H. C. , & Duerkop, B. A. (2021). Lytic bacteriophages facilitate antibiotic sensitization of Enterococcus faecium . Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 65, e00143‐21. 10.1128/AAC.00143-21 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Carvalho, S. M. , Kloosterman, T. G. , Kuipers, O. P. , & Neves, A. R. (2011). CcpA ensures optimal metabolic fitness of Streptococcus pneumoniae . PLoS One, 6, e26707. 10.1371/journal.pone.0026707 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Chatterjee, A. , Johnson, C. N. , Luong, P. , Hullahalli, K. , McBride, S. W. , Schubert, A. M. , Palmer, K. L. , & Carlson, P. E., Jr. , Duerkop, B. A. (2019). Bacteriophage resistance alters antibiotic‐mediated intestinal expansion of enterococci. Infection and Immunity, 87, 10.1128/iai.00085-19 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Chatterjee, A. , Willett, J. L. E. , Nguyen, U. T. , Monogue, B. , Palmer, K. L. , Dunny, G. M. , & Duerkop, B. A. (2020). Parallel genomics uncover novel enterococcal‐bacteriophage interactions. mBio, 11, e03120–19. 10.1128/mBio.03120-19 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Cook, R. , Brown, N. , Redgwell, T. , Rihtman, B. , Barnes, M. , Clokie, M. , Stekel, D. J. , Hobman, J. , Jones, M. A. , & Millard, A. (2021). INfrastructure for a PHAge REference Database: Identification of large‐scale biases in the current collection of phage genomes. PHAGE, 2, 214–223. 10.1089/phage.2021.0007 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. De Coster, W. , D'Hert, S. , Schultz, D. T. , Cruts, M. , & Van Broeckhoven, C. (2018). NanoPack: Visualizing and processing long‐read sequencing data. Bioinformatics, 34, 2666–2669. 10.1093/bioinformatics/bty149 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Denes, T. , Bakker, H. C. , Tokman, J. I. , Guldimann, C. , Wiedmann, M. , & Wommack, K. E. (2015). Selection and characterization of phage‐resistant mutant strains of Listeria monocytogenes reveal host genes linked to phage adsorption. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 81, 4295–4305. 10.1128/AEM.00087-15 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Duerkop, B. A. , Huo, W. , Bhardwaj, P. , Palmer, K. L. , & Hooper, L. V. (2016). Molecular basis for lytic bacteriophage resistance in enterococci. mBio, 7, e01304–e01316. 10.1128/mBio.01304-16 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Dupuis, M. , Villion, M. , Magadán, A. H. , & Moineau, S. (2013). CRISPR‐Cas and restriction‐modification systems are compatible and increase phage resistance. Nature Communications, 4, 2087. 10.1038/ncomms3087 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Esmail, M. A. M. , Abdulghany, H. M. , & Khairy, R. M. (2019). Prevalence of multidrug‐resistant Enterococcus faecalis in hospital‐acquired surgical wound infections and bacteremia: Concomitant analysis of antimicrobial resistance genes. Infectious Disease, 12, 1178633719882929. 10.1177/1178633719882929 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Eugster, M. R. , Morax, L. S. , Hüls, V. J. , Huwiler, S. G. , Leclercq, A. , Lecuit, M. , & Loessner, M. J. (2015). Bacteriophage predation promotes serovar diversification in Listeria monocytogenes . Molecular Microbiology, 97, 33–46. 10.1111/mmi.13009 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Farman, M. , Yasir, M. , Al‐Hindi, R. R. , Farraj, S. A. , Jiman‐Fatani, A. A. , Alawi, M. , & Azhar, E. I. (2019). Genomic analysis of multidrug‐resistant clinical Enterococcus faecalis isolates for antimicrobial resistance genes and virulence factors from the western region of Saudi Arabia. Antimicrobial Resistance and Infection Control, 8, 55. 10.1186/s13756-019-0508-4 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Gao, P. , Pinkston, K. L. , Bourgogne, A. , Cruz, M. R. , Garsin, D. A. , Murray, B. E. , & Harvey, B. R. (2013). Library screen identifies Enterococcus faecalis CcpA, the catabolite control protein A, as an effector of Ace, a collagen adhesion protein linked to virulence. Journal of Bacteriology, 195, 4761–4768. 10.1128/JB.00706-13 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Gao, P. , Tang, Q. , An, X. , Yan, X. , & Liang, D. (2011). Structure of HsdS subunit from Thermoanaerobacter tengcongensis sheds lights on mechanism of dynamic opening and closing of type I methyltransferase. PLoS One, 6, e17346. 10.1371/journal.pone.0017346 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Gawryszewska, I. , Żabicka, D. , Hryniewicz, W. , & Sadowy, E. (2017). Linezolid‐resistant enterococci in Polish hospitals: Species, clonality and determinants of linezolid resistance. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, 36, 1279–1286. 10.1007/s10096-017-2934-7 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Gelman, D. , Beyth, S. , Lerer, V. , Adler, K. , Poradosu‐Cohen, R. , Coppenhagen‐Glazer, S. , & Hazan, R. (2018). Combined bacteriophages and antibiotics as an efficient therapy against VRE Enterococcus faecalis in a mouse model. Research in Microbiology, 169, 531–539. 10.1016/j.resmic.2018.04.008 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Guerardel, Y. , Sadovskaya, I. , Maes, E. , Furlan, S. , Chapot‐Chartier, M.‐P. , Mesnage, S. , Rigottier‐Gois, L. , & Serror, P. (2020). Complete structure of the enterococcal polysaccharide antigen (EPA) of vancomycin‐resistant Enterococcus faecalis V583 reveals that EPA decorations are teichoic acids covalently linked to a rhamnopolysaccharide backbone. mBio, 11, e00277–20. 10.1128/mBio.00277-20 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Ho, K. , Huo, W. , Pas, S. , Dao, R. , & Palmer, K. L. (2018). Loss‐of‐function mutations in epaR confer resistance to ϕNPV1 infection in Enterococcus faecalis OG1RF. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 62, e00758–18. 10.1128/AAC.00758-18 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Hyatt, D. , Chen, G.‐L. , LoCascio, P. F. , Land, M. L. , Larimer, F. W. , & Hauser, L. J. (2010). Prodigal: prokaryotic gene recognition and translation initiation site identification. BMC Bioinformatics, 11, 119. 10.1186/1471-2105-11-119 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Jain, M. , Olsen, H. E. , Paten, B. , & Akeson, M. (2016). The Oxford Nanopore MinION: Delivery of nanopore sequencing to the genomics community. Genome Biology, 17, 239. 10.1186/s13059-016-1103-0 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Kabanova, A. P. , Shneider, M. M. , Korzhenkov, A. A. , Bugaeva, E. N. , Miroshnikov, K. K. , Zdorovenko, E. L. , Kulikov, E. E. , Toschakov, S. V. , Ignatov, A. N. , Knirel, Y. A. , & Miroshnikov, K. A. (2019). Host specificity of the Dickeya bacteriophage PP35 is directed by a tail spike interaction with bacterial O‐antigen, enabling the infection of alternative non‐pathogenic bacterial host. Frontiers in Microbiology, 9, 3288. 10.3389/fmicb.2018.03288 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Khalifa, L. , Brosh, Y. , Gelman, D. , Coppenhagen‐Glazer, S. , Beyth, S. , Poradosu‐Cohen, R. , Que, Y.‐A. , Beyth, N. , & Hazan, R. (2015). Targeting Enterococcus faecalis biofilms with phage therapy. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 81, 2696–2705. 10.1128/AEM.00096-15 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Kortright, K. E. , Chan, B. K. , Koff, J. L. , & Turner, P. E. (2019). Phage therapy: A renewed approach to combat antibiotic‐resistant bacteria. Cell Host & Microbe, 25, 219–232. 10.1016/j.chom.2019.01.014 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Koskella, B. , & Brockhurst, M. A. (2014). Bacteria–phage coevolution as a driver of ecological and evolutionary processes in microbial communities. FEMS Microbiology Reviews, 38, 916–931. 10.1111/1574-6976.12072 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Kupczok, A. , Neve, H. , Huang, K. D. , Hoeppner, M. P. , Heller, K. J. , Franz, C. M. A. P. , & Dagan, T. (2018). Rates of mutation and recombination in Siphoviridae phage genome evolution over three decades. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 35, 1147–1159. 10.1093/molbev/msy027 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Labrie, S. J. , & Moineau, S. (2007). Abortive infection mechanisms and prophage sequences significantly influence the genetic makeup of emerging lytic lactococcal phages. Journal of Bacteriology, 189, 1482–1487. 10.1128/JB.01111-06 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Langdon, A. , Crook, N. , & Dantas, G. (2016). The effects of antibiotics on the microbiome throughout development and alternative approaches for therapeutic modulation. Genome Medicine, 8, 39. 10.1186/s13073-016-0294-z [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Lebreton, F. , Manson, A. L. , Saavedra, J. T. , Straub, T. J. , Earl, A. M. , & Gilmore, M. S. (2017). Tracing the enterococci from Paleozoic origins to the hospital. Cell, 169, 849–861. 10.1016/j.cell.2017.04.027 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Lebreton, F. , Willems, R. J. L. , & Gilmore, M. S. (2014). Enterococcus diversity, origins in nature, and gut colonization. In Gilmore M. S., Clewell D. B., Ike Y., & Shankar N. (Eds.), Enterococci: From commensals to leading causes of drug resistant infection. Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Li, H. (2018). Minimap2: Pairwise alignment for nucleotide sequences. Bioinformatics, 34, 3094–3100. 10.1093/bioinformatics/bty191 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Li, L. , Stoeckert, C. J., Jr. , & Roos, D. S. (2003). OrthoMCL: Identification of ortholog groups for eukaryotic genomes. Genome Research, 13, 2178–2189. 10.1101/gr.1224503 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Mangalea, M. R. , Paez‐Espino, D. , Kieft, K. , Chatterjee, A. , Chriswell, M. E. , Seifert, J. A. , Feser, M. L. , Demoruelle, M. K. , Sakatos, A. , Anantharaman, K. , Deane, K. D. , Kuhn, K. A. , Holers, V. M. , & Duerkop, B. A. (2021). Individuals at risk for rheumatoid arthritis harbor differential intestinal bacteriophage communities with distinct metabolic potential. Cell Host & Microbe, 29, 726–739. 10.1016/j.chom.2021.03.020 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Manson, J. M. , Keis, S. , Smith, J. M. B. , & Cook, G. M. (2003). A clonal lineage of VanA‐type Enterococcus faecalis predominates in vancomycin‐resistant Enterococci isolated in New Zealand. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 47, 204–210. 10.1128/AAC.47.1.204-210.2003 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Minot, S. , Bryson, A. , Chehoud, C. , Wu, G. D. , Lewis, J. D. , & Bushman, F. D. (2013). Rapid evolution of the human gut virome. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 110, 12450–12455. 10.1073/pnas.1300833110 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Mizoguchi, K. , Morita, M. , Fischer, C. R. , Yoichi, M. , Tanji, Y. , & Unno, H. (2003). Coevolution of bacteriophage PP01 and Escherichia coli O157:H7 in continuous culture. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 69, 170–176. 10.1128/AEM.69.1.170-176.2003 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Moelling, K. , Broecker, F. , & Willy, C. (2018). A wake‐up call: We need phage therapy now. Viruses, 10, 688. 10.3390/v10120688 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Munoz‐Price, L. S. , Lolans, K. , & Quinn, J. P. (2005). Emergence of resistance to daptomycin during treatment of vancomycin‐resistant Enterococcus faecalis infection. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 41, 565–566. 10.1086/432121 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Muscariello, L. , Marasco, R. , Felice, M. D. , & Sacco, M. (2001). The functional ccpA gene is required for carbon catabolite repression in Lactobacillus plantarum . Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 67, 2903–2907. 10.1128/AEM.67.7.2903-2907.2001 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Oechslin, F. (2018). Resistance development to bacteriophages occurring during bacteriophage therapy. Viruses, 10, 351. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Oprea, S. F. , Zaidi, N. , Donabedian, S. M. , Balasubramaniam, M. , Hershberger, E. , & Zervos, M. J. (2004). Molecular and clinical epidemiology of vancomycin‐resistant Enterococcus faecalis . Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 53, 626–630. 10.1093/jac/dkh138 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Palmer, K. L. , Godfrey, P. , Griggs, A. , Kos, V. N. , Zucker, J. , Desjardins, C. , Cerqueira, G. , Gevers, D. , Walker, S. , Wortman, J. , Feldgarden, M. , Haas, B. , Birren, B. , Gilmore, M. S. , & McDaniel, L. S. (2012). Comparative genomics of Enterococci: variation in Enterococcus faecalis, clade structure in E. faecium, and defining characteristics of E. gallinarium and E. casseliflavus . mBio, 3, e00318–11. 10.1128/mBio.00318-11 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Perry, E. B. , Barrick, J. E. , & Bohannan, B. J. M. (2015). The molecular and genetic basis of repeatable coevolution between Escherichia coli and bacteriophage T3 in a laboratory microcosm. PLoS One, 10, e0130639. 10.1371/journal.pone.0130639 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Peters, T. L. , Song, Y. , Bryan, D. W. , Hudson, L. K. , Denes, T. G. , & Dudley, E. G. (2020). Mutant and recombinant phages selected from in vitro coevolution conditions overcome phage‐resistant Listeria monocytogenes . Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 86, e02138–20. 10.1128/AEM.02138-20 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Plumbridge, J. (1998). Control of the expression of the manXYZ operon in Escherichia coli: Mlc is a negative regulator of the mannose PTS. Molecular Microbiology, 27, 369–380. 10.1046/j.1365-2958.1998.00685.x [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Remschmidt, C. , Schröder, C. , Behnke, M. , Gastmeier, P. , Geffers, C. , & Kramer, T. S. (2018). Continuous increase of vancomycin resistance in enterococci causing nosocomial infections in Germany—10 years of surveillance. Antimicrobial Resistance and Infection Control, 7, 54. 10.1186/s13756-018-0353-x [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Seed, K. D. , Faruque, S. M. , Mekalanos, J. J. , Calderwood, S. B. , Qadri, F. , & Camilli, A. (2012). Phase variable O antigen biosynthetic genes control expression of the major protective antigen and bacteriophage receptor in Vibrio cholerae O1. PLoS Pathogens, 8, e1002917. 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002917 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Silva, J. , Dias, R. , Junior, J. I. , Marcelino, M. , Silva, M. , Carmo, A. , Sousa, M. , Silva, C. , & de Paula, S. (2021). A rapid method for performing a multivariate optimization of phage production using the RCCD approach. Pathogens, 10, 1100. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Srour, B. , Gervason, S. , Monfort, B. , & D'Autréaux, B. (2020). Mechanism of iron–sulfur cluster assembly: In the intimacy of iron and sulfur encounter. Inorganics, 8, 55. [Google Scholar]
  57. Sulakvelidze, A. , Alavidze, Z. , & Morris, J. G. (2001). Bacteriophage therapy. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 45, 649–659. 10.1128/AAC.45.3.649-659.2001 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Sullivan, M. J. , Petty, N. K. , & Beatson, S. A. (2011). Easyfig: A genome comparison visualizer. Bioinformatics, 27, 1009–1010. 10.1093/bioinformatics/btr039 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Takeuchi, I. , Osada, K. , Azam, A. H. , Asakawa, H. , Miyanaga, K. , Tanji, Y. , & Pettinari, M. J. (2016). The presence of two receptor‐binding proteins contributes to the wide host range of staphylococcal twort‐like phages. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 82, 5763–5774. 10.1128/AEM.01385-16 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Tu, J. , Park, T. , Morado, D. R. , Hughes, K. T. , Molineux, I. J. , & Liu, J. (2017). Dual host specificity of phage SP6 is facilitated by tailspike rotation. Virology, 507, 206–215. 10.1016/j.virol.2017.04.017 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Turner, A. M. , Lee, J. Y. H. , Gorrie, C. L. , Howden, B. P. , & Carter, G. P. (2021). Genomic insights into last‐line antimicrobial resistance in multidrug‐resistant Staphylococcus and vancomycin‐resistant Enterococcus . Frontiers in Microbiology, 12, 637656. 10.3389/fmicb.2021.637656 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Turner, D. , Kropinski, A. M. , & Adriaenssens, E. M. (2021). A roadmap for genome‐based phage taxonomy. Viruses, 13, 506. 10.3390/v13030506 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Tyne, D. V. , & Gilmore, M. S. (2014). Friend turned foe: Evolution of enterococcal virulence and antibiotic resistance. Annual Review of Microbiology, 68, 337–356. 10.1146/annurev-micro-091213-113003 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Ubeda, C. , Taur, Y. , Jenq, R. R. , Equinda, M. J. , Son, T. , Samstein, M. , Viale, A. , Socci, N. D. , van den Brink, M. R. , Kamboj, M. , & Pamer, E. G. (2010). Vancomycin‐resistant Enterococcus domination of intestinal microbiota is enabled by antibiotic treatment in mice and precedes bloodstream invasion in humans. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 120, 4332–4341. 10.1172/jci43918 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Wandro, S. , Oliver, A. , Gallagher, T. , Weihe, C. , England, W. , Martiny, J. B. H. , & Whiteson, K. (2019). Predictable molecular adaptation of coevolving Enterococcus faecium and lytic phage EfV12‐phi1. Frontiers in Microbiology, 9, 3192. 10.3389/fmicb.2018.03192 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Wick, R. R. , Judd, L. M. , Gorrie, C. L. , & Holt, K. E. (2017). Unicycler: Resolving bacterial genome assemblies from short and long sequencing reads. PLoS Computational Biology, 13, e1005595. 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005595 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Wick, R. R. , Schultz, M. B. , Zobel, J. , & Holt, K. E. (2015). Bandage: Interactive visualization of de novo genome assemblies. Bioinformatics, 31, 3350–3352. 10.1093/bioinformatics/btv383 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Data Availability Statement

All data are provided in full in this paper, except for raw Illumina DNA sequencing reads. Sequencing reads are available at the European Nucleotide Archive (ENA) under project accession PRJEB48380: http://www.ebi.ac.uk/ena/browser/view/PRJEB48380

Articles from MicrobiologyOpen are provided here courtesy of Wiley

RESOURCES