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Published in final edited form as: J Res Adolesc. 2021 Dec 27;32(1):89–98. doi: 10.1111/jora.12707

Becoming Strong: Sociocultural Experiences, Mental Health, & Black Girls’ Strong Black Woman Schema Endorsement

Nkemka Anyiwo 1, Alexis G Stanton 2, Lanice R Avery 2, Donte L Bernard 3, Jasmine A Abrams 4, Alexandrea Golden 5
PMCID: PMC9077465  NIHMSID: NIHMS1801372  PMID: 34958150

Abstract

This study examines the precedents and consequences of Black girls’ Strong Black Woman schema (SBW) endorsement. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that, among Black girls (N= 308), racial discrimination experiences and racial barrier socialization messages were positively associated with SBW endorsement. However, there was no significant interaction between racial discrimination and racial barrier messages in predicting SBW endorsement. Our analyses also revealed that SBW was not directly associated with internalizing symptoms (e.g., anxiety and depression symptoms). Furthermore, there was no significant interaction between racial discrimination and SBW endorsement in predicting internalizing symptoms. Findings provide evidence of and clarity on how sociocultural experiences shape SBW development and highlight a need to better understand how SBW endorsement functions in the mental health of Black girls.

Keywords: African American girls, racial discrimination, Strong Black Woman, Superwoman Schema

The “Strong Black Woman” (SBW) is a culturally specific gender schema that characterizes Black women as strong, resilient, and self-sacrificing for their families and communities (Baker, Buchanan, Mingo, Roker, & Brown, 2015). For Black women, the SBW may serve as a survival mechanism and positive coping strategy in the face of race-and gender-based marginalization (Collins, 2002; Harrington, Crowther, & Shipherd, 2010; Shorter-Gooden, 2004). As such, Black women’s SBW endorsement is often viewed positively amongst themselves and their communities (Nelson, Cardemil, & Adeoye, 2016; Woods-Giscombé, 2010). However, prior research also highlights the costs of endorsing the SBW schema. For example, the SBW is described as a restrictive and controlling image in Black women’s lives that influences them to deprioritize their own needs and emotions to fulfill the needs of their families and communities (Abrams, Maxwell, Pope, & Belgrave, 2014; Beauboeuf-Lafontant, 2007; Collins, 2002; Watson & Hunter, 2016). Although the complex role of the SBW in Black women’s lives has been well-documented, less is known about the contexts by which the SBW develops and how endorsing the SBW may impact Black women at earlier stages in their lives. Hence, scholars have called for the need to examine the SBW in Black girls to build the literature on developmental processes that shape the SBW (Anyiwo, Ward, Day Fletcher, & Rowley, 2018). This study seeks to address this gap in the literature by (1) examining the role of sociocultural experiences in Black girls’ endorsement of the SBW and (2) identifying the associations between Black girls’ SBW endorsement and their mental health.

Developmental and Sociocultural Context Shaping SBW Endorsement

The SBW is theorized to be shaped by racist stereotypes of Black women as mentally and physically stronger than White women during chattel slavery (Harris-Lacewell, 2001). These stereotypes have since emerged as an aspirational coping mechanism for Black women to navigate racism and sexism, among other individual life challenges (Anyiwo, Ward, et al., 2018; Ford, 2008; Watson & Hunter, 2016; Wyatt, 2008). In a qualitative study, Woods-Giscombé (2010) found that women identified the following contextual factors to be associated with the development of the SBW Schema (also referred to as the Superwoman Schema): a historical legacy of racial and gender stereotyping or oppression, spiritual values, lessons from foremothers, and a personal history of mistreatment, disappointment, or abuse. In short, Black women’s unique socio-historical experiences have reinforced the development and adoption of this culturally specific construct (Ford, 2008; Harris-Lacewell, 2001). As a result of these social and personal injustices and hardships, the SBW schema has been maintained—functioning as a coping mechanism that may behelpful in responding to and surviving the challenging conditions of the Black experience.

For Black girls, SBW endorsement may emerge in adolescence. The transition into adolescence is associated with increased awareness of racial and cultural issues for Black youth due to advances in cognitive and social processes that inform how they perceive themselves and relate to others (Spears Brown & Bigler, 2005; Hughes et al., 2016; Steinberg, 2005). Previous research suggests that this heightened racial awareness is associated with increased reports of racial discrimination (Spears Brown & Bigler, 2005). During adolescence, Black girls also receive more racial socialization—messages that prepare youth for their racial sociopolitical context (Stevenson, 1995). Therefore, sociocultural experiences like racial socialization and discrimination may be critical to Black girls’ endorsement of the SBW in adolescence as they are actively developing their identities and constructing their racial worldview (Anyiwo, Bañales, Rowley, Watkins, & Richards-Schuster, 2018).

Theoretical and qualitative research suggests that Black girls and women are socialized to be strong (Davis & Jones, 2021). Black mothers identify the ability to navigate racism and sexism as core lessons for their daughters (Belgrave, 2009; Oshin & Milan, 2019; Sharp & Ispa, 2009). Racial barrier messages are a form of racial socialization that alert youth to racial discrimination (Lesane-Brown et al., 2006). These messages are likely to be especially salient to the development of the SBW for Black girls. As Black girls experience racial discrimination and receive messages alerting them to racial inequality, these collective processes may reinforce the cultural ideal that Black women need to be strong to survive a racially contentious world.

SBW Endorsement and Mental Health

Endorsement of the SBW is related to beneficial and adverse health outcomes for Black adult women (Abrams et al., 2014; Woods-Giscombé, 2010). Racial discrimination is deleterious to the mental health of Black people (Pieterse, Todd, Neville, & Carter, 2012; Williams, Lawrence, & Davis, 2019). SBW endorsement may be a protective coping strategy that Black women use to navigate race- and gender-based marginalization that can equip them to manage stress, increase their cultural pride, and promote their resilience (Abrams et al., 2014; Baker et al., 2015; Davis & Jones, 2021; Jones, Harris, & Reynolds, 2020; Watson & Hunter, 2016; Woods-Giscombé, 2010). However, Black women’s SBW endorsement is also associated with emotional inhibition and lower self-esteem (Harrington et al., 2010; Stanton, Jerald, Ward, & Avery, 2017). Black women who internalize the SBW schema report less emotional support and increased psychological distress (Watson-Singleton, 2017). Furthermore, prior studies among Black women demonstrate that high SBW endorsement is associated with deleterious mental health outcomes, including increased depressive symptoms, anxiety, hostility, sensitivity, and loneliness (Donovan & West, 2015; Liao, Wei, & Yin, 2020; Stanton et al., 2017). However, no known study has examined whether Black adolescent girls also experience the adverse mental health implications of SBW. Furthermore, despite previous research that conceptualizes SBW as a coping strategy to navigate racism, limited work has empirically investigated the extent to which SBW endorsement may mitigate or exacerbate the adverse effects of racial discrimination on Black girls’ mental health.

Present Study

This study builds the literature on the developmental process that shapes endorsement of the SBW and its implications on youth wellbeing. First, we examine the associations between Black girls’ racial discrimination experiences and racial barrier socialization (i.e., messages that prepare them for discrimination) and their SBW endorsement. Consistent with work that has identified racism as a source of the SBW, we anticipate that Black girls’ experiences of racial discrimination and racial barrier socialization will be positively associated with SBW endorsement. We also expect that there will be a significant moderation effect such that the combination of higher levels of racial barrier socialization and frequent experiences of racial discrimination would be associated with stronger SBW endorsement.

Prior research shows that internalizing symptoms (e.g., depressive and anxiety symptoms) are a particularly salient mental health issue for adolescent girls (Black, Panayiotou, & Humphrey, 2021; Hankin, Mermelstein, & Roesch, 2007; McLean & Anderson, 2009), and according to national reports, nearly half of Black girls in the U.S. report experiencing depressive symptoms (i.e., persistent feelings of sadness or hopelessness; Kann et al., 2018). Further, studies consistently demonstrate that Black adolescents’ experiences of racial discrimination are associated with increased internalizing symptoms, including symptoms of depression and, anxiety and stress (Benner et al., 2018; Gaylord-Harden & Cunningham, 2009; Winchester, Jones, Allen, Hope, & Cryer-Coupet, 2021). As such, our study’s second aim was to examine the associations between Black girls’ racial discrimination experiences, SBW endorsement, and internalizing symptoms. Consistent with empirical research on adults, we anticipate that Black girls’ SBW endorsement will 1) be associated with higher internalizing symptoms and 2) exacerbate the associations between Black girls’ racial discrimination experiences and internalizing symptoms.

METHODS

Participants and Data Collection

We assessed 308 adolescents who identified as Black and female and were between ages 13–17 (M = 14.96, SD = 1.45). Participants were recruited from across the United States using a Qualtrics survey panel. Regionally, participants reported primarily residing in the South (50.3%) followed by the Midwest (16.2%), Northeast (15.6%), West (7.1%), and unidentified (10%). Most participants reported living in urban (36%) or suburban (35.1%) contexts, followed by rural (28.2%) and unidentified (0.6%). We used guardian education as a proxy to assess youth’s SES (Diemer, Voight, Marchand, & Bañales, 2019). Nearly half (49.3%) of participants’ guardians completed at least some college.

Guardians with qualifying youth were recruited and contacted directly by Qualtrics. Guardians provided consent and children provided their assent. Participants answered a series of measures assessing topics not limited to their sociocultural experiences, mental health, and identity. We included three attention checks and dropped participants from our survey who answered two of three questions incorrectly to ensure data quality.

Measures

SBW endorsement.

SBW endorsement was measured using the Strong Black Woman Scale (Thomas, 2006). Participants rated the extent to which they agreed with nine items endorsing characteristics of the SBW on a 6-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree to 6 = strongly agree). Since the scale was developed and validated in a sample of Black undergraduate students, researchers simplified the language of two items in a previous study with adolescents to make it more accessible to a youth population (see Anyiwo, Ward, et al., 2018). For one item, “Black women should place the survival of their family and community above their own needs” was changed to “Black women should put…”. The second item, which originally said, “Being selfless and sacrificial are positive qualities that Black women should display” was changed to “Sacrificing for others is a positive quality that Black women should display.” This slightly modified version of the scale showed evidence of adequate internal consistency in previous work (α = .77; Anyiwo, Ward, et al., 2018) and in the present study (α = .82).

Racial discrimination.

The Adolescent Discrimination Distress Index (ADDI; Fisher et al., 2020) evaluates whether (yes or no) youth experienced ethnic or racial discrimination in the last year and uses a Likert-Type scale (1 = not all to 5 = extremely) to assess how much discriminatory events upset them. The scale includes 15 items with three subscales assessing youth’s racial discrimination experiences in educational contexts, in institutions, and among peers. In the present study, we used a composite score and only measured the frequency of youth’s experiences using a Likert-Type scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (very frequently; α = .93).

Racial Barrier messages.

We used the four-item Racial Barrier Subscale of the Racial Socialization Questionnaire-Teen (RSQ-T; Lesane-Brown et al., 2006), which measures how frequently youth receive messages from their parents alerting them to the possibility of being discriminated against because of their race (e.g., “Told you that some people try to keep Black people from being successful”). Participants responded on a 3-point Likert-Type scale (0 = never to 2 = more than twice), indicating how frequently their parents had communicated each message or behavior to them in the last year (α = .80).

Internalizing symptoms.

We used the short version of the Revised Children’s Anxiety and Depression Scale (RCADS-short; Ebesutani et al., 2012) to assess internalizing symptoms. The RCADS-short includes 25 items with two subscales, a depression scale that assesses major depressive disorder symptoms and an anxiety scale that assesses symptoms of five anxiety disorders. Participants responded on a 4-point Likert-type scale (ranging from Never to Always), identifying the extent to which they experience anxiety and depression symptomatology. We removed one item from our scale that assessed suicide ideation (i.e., “I think about death”) as we were not assessing suicidality in our study (Ebesutani et al., 2012). We compiled the anxiety and depression subscales to measure internalizing symptoms (α = .96).

Analytical Strategy

To test our research hypotheses, we conducted two ordinary least squares hierarchical regressions in SPSS V27: (1) assessing the association between sociocultural factors (independent variables) and SBW (outcome) and (2) assessing the association between racial discrimination and SBW (independent variables), and mental health (outcome). In both regressions, we included the following covariates in the first step: guardian education (a proxy for SES) and region (via a 0/1 dummy code; 0 = Other, 1 = South). We selected these covariates based on: (1) prior qualitative research in which Black women discuss the role of class and social status in shaping SBW endorsement (Nelson et al., 2016); and (2) previous studies among Black youth in which positive associations between SES indicators (i.e., education and income) and mental health are influenced by factors, such as place of residence (Assari, Gibbons, & Simons, 2018). The second step included the main effects, and the final step included our interactions. We used the default setting in SPSS to handle missing data (e.g., listwise deletion).

RESULTS

Descriptive Findings

The results for descriptive analysis can be found in Table 1. On average, girls in our study reported moderate SBW endorsement. A majority of youth (87.7%) reported experiencing some form of racial discrimination in the last year and on average, experienced discrimination occasionally. A majority of youth (90.6%) also reported receiving messages from their parents preparing them for racial barriers and on average, youth received moderate levels of these messages. Participants also indicated that they experience moderate levels of internalizing symptoms. Pearson correlation analysis revealed that girls’ racial discrimination experiences were positively associated with their experiences of racial barrier messages, endorsement of SBW, and internalizing symptoms. Experiences of racial barrier messages were also positively related to Black girls’ SBW endorsement.

TABLE 1.

Descriptive Statistics and Person Correlations Across Key Study Variables (n = 499)

Measure Mean SD Range Skewness Kurtosis 1 2 3 4 5
1. SBW 3.81 0.97 1–6 −0.29 0.57 – – – – –
2. Racial Discrimination 2.10 0.91 1–5 0.77 0.15 .22 ** – – – –
3. Racial Barrier Messages 2.22 0.62 1–3 −0.45 −0.83 .22 ** .17 ** – – –
4. Internalizing Symptoms 1.82 0.67 1–4 0.86 0.24 .08 .48 ** .04 – –
5. Guardian Education 3.85 1.48 1–7 0.36 −0.33 −.09 .17 ** .00 −.28** –
6. Region (1 = Southern, 0 = Other) – – – – – .14 * .19 ** −.01 −.08 −.08
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Note. Region was coded as 1 for south and 0 for other region. Bolded coefficients are significant.

*

p ≤ .05,

**

p ≤ .01.

Sociocultural factors and SBW endorsement.

Step one in the regression predicting SBW endorsement was not significant, F(2, 254) = 2.28, p = .10; see Table 2. Neither of the covariates were associated with Black girls’ SBW endorsement. The addition of sociocultural variables resulted in a significant step, F(4, 252) = 8.24, p < .001 and a significant increase (9.8%) in the variance explained in SBW endorsement. As hypothesized, racial barrier messages (β = .21, p < .001) and racial discrimination experiences (β = .20, p < .01) were positively associated with Black girls’ endorsement of SBW. Contrary to our hypothesis, the interaction between racial barrier messages and racial discrimination was not significant.

TABLE 2.

Summary of Hierarchal Regression Analysis for Racial Discrimination and Racial Barrier Socialization Predicting SBW

Variable β B SE sr 2 95% CI
Step 1
 Guardian Education −.07 −0.05 0.04 .01 [−0.13, 0.03]
 Region .11 0.21 0.12 .01 [−0.04, 0.45]
 R2 .02
Step 2
 Guardian Education −.04 −0.03 0.04 .00 [−0.11, 0.05]
 Region .15 * 0.29 0.12 .02 [0.06, 0.52]
 Racial Discrimination .20 ** 0.22 0.07 .04 [0.08, 0.35]
 Racial Barrier Socialization .21 ** 0.34 0.10 .04 [0.15, 0.53]
 R2 .12 **
 R2Δ .10 **
Step 3
 Guardian Education −.04 −0.03 0.04 .00 [−0.10, 0.05]
 Region .14 * 0.27 0.12 .02 [0.04, 0.51]
 Racial Discrimination .18 ** 0.20 0.07 .03 [0.07, 0.34]
 Racial Barrier Socialization .23 ** 0.37 0.10 .05 [0.18, 0.56]
 Racial Discrimination × Racial Barrier .11 0.20 0.10 .01 [−0.01, 0.40]
 R2 .13 **
 R2Δ .01
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Note. Region was coded as 1 for south and 0 for other region. Bolded coefficients are significant.

*

p ≤ .05,

**

p ≤ .01.

Racial discrimination, SBW endorsement, and internalizing symptoms.

Step one in the regression predicting internalizing symptoms was statistically significant, F(2, 255) = 11.13, p < .001. The covariate, guardian education, was negatively associated with internalizing symptoms (β = .−27, p < .001; see Table 3). Region, however, was not significant. The addition of racial discrimination and SBW in the second step resulted in a significant increase of 21.7% of the variance explained in internalizing symptoms. Girls’ racial discrimination experiences were positively associated with internalizing symptoms (β = .49, p < .001). However, SBW endorsement was not associated. The third step, including the interaction between racial discrimination and SBW endorsement, did not significantly increase the variance explained in internalizing symptoms. Furthermore, the interaction between racial discrimination and SBW endorsement was not significant.

TABLE 3.

Summary of Hierarchal Regression Analysis for Racial Discrimination and SBW Predicting Internalizing Symptoms

Variable β B SE sr 2 95% CI
Step 1
 Guardian Education −.27** −0.12 0.03 .07 [−0.17, −0.07]
 Region −.11 −0.14 0.08 .01 [−0.30, 0.02]
 R2 .08 **
Step 2
 Guardian Education −.19 −0.08 0.02 .04 [−0.13, −0.04]
 Region .00 0.00 0.07 .00 [−0.14, 0.15]
 Racial Discrimination .49 ** 0.37 0.04 .21 [0.29, 0.45]
 SBW −.06 −0.04 0.04 .00 [−0.11, 0.04]
 R2 .30 **
 R2Δ .22 **
Step 3
 Guardian Education −.19** −.09 0.02 .04 [−0.13, −0.04]
 Region .00 .00 0.07 .00 [−0.15, 0.15]
 Racial Discrimination .49 ** .37 0.04 .19 [0.28, 0.45]
 SBW −.06 −.04 0.04 .00 [−0.11, 0.04]
 Racial Discrimination × SBW .02 .02 0.04 .00 [−0.05, 0.08]
 R2 .30 **
 R2Δ .00
Open in a new tab

Note. Region was coded as 1 for south and 0 for other region. Bolded coefficients are significant.

*

p ≤ .05,

**

p ≤ .01.

DISCUSSION

Scholars have studied the complexities of Black women’s endorsement of the SBW. However, limited work has considered the precursors and outcomes of SBW endorsement among Black girls as they prepare for the transition into womanhood. This study addresses this gap in the literature by examining sociocultural factors that contribute to Black adolescent girls’ SBW endorsement and by investigating the mental health implications of their endorsement. The first aim of this study was to examine the role of racial socialization and racial discrimination in SBW endorsement. As hypothesized, Black girls who experienced more racial discrimination and received more messages preparing them for racial barriers also had higher SBW endorsement. These findings are in line with qualitative studies which have identified experiences of racism and sexism and messages from adults as a context for shaping the SBW (Abrams et al., 2014; Davis & Jones, 2021; Sharp & Ispa, 2009; Woods-Giscombé, 2010). Black girls’ lived experiences of discrimination and preparation for discrimination via racial barrier messages from their parents likely reinforce the necessity of Black women’s strength as a tool to traverse direct and systematic oppression.

Contrary to our hypothesis, racial barrier messages did not moderate the effects of racial discrimination on SBW endorsement. This null finding diverges from previous research that has found racial barrier messages to moderate associations between discrimination and Black youth’s psychosocial outcomes (Burt & Simons, 2015; Neblett, Rivas-Drake, & Umaña-Taylor, 2012; Richardson et al., 2015). Furthermore, given prior theoretical and qualitative research that suggests that Black girls are socialized to be strong and that Black mothers identify SBW-related attributes (i.e., independence, assertiveness, strong-willed) as critical to navigating race- and gender-based discrimination (Belgrave, 2009; Oshin & Milan, 2019; Sharp & Ispa, 2009), we would have expected that racial barrier messages would have strengthened the effects of racial discrimination on SBW endorsement. As such, it is possible that our null findings suggest that there are unique ways that Black girls’ lived experiences of racial discrimination operate to shape SBW endorsement that differ from the messages about racial barriers that they receive from their parents (Mims & Williams, 2020; Oshin & Milan, 2019).

It should be noted that this is one of the first studies to examine the role of sociocultural factors on Black girls’ SBW endorsement. It is possible that the compounded influence of racial discrimination and parent socialization on SBW would be better captured in a longitudinal design. For example, as Black girls navigate novel, more complex forms of racial discrimination across adolescence and early adulthood, they may draw from their experience of parental racial socialization to inform their beliefs about the need for Black women to be strong (Corbin, Smith, & Garcia, 2018; Hope et al., 2015). Taken together, the significant and null findings of this study highlight a need to more extensively examine how Black girls cognitively process identity-based marginalization and socialization and the extent to which these experiences converge (or do not converge) to shape their gendered-racial beliefs.

The second aim of our study was to examine the mental health implications of Black girl’s endorsement of SBW. Contrary to our expectations, we did not find statistically significant direct effects of SBW on internalizing symptoms, nor did we find a moderation effect of SBW on the associations between discrimination and internalizing symptoms. In some ways, this finding is striking given that strong associations have been found between SBW and mental health with Black adult women (Donovan & West, 2015; Harrington et al., 2010; Stanton et al., 2017). One possible explanation for our null findings is the low mean scores of internalizing symptoms in our study, which may have resulted in a Type II error that likely would be addressed in a sample with greater variability in internalizing symptoms.

Another possibility is that Black girls’ SBW endorsement may function similarly to other culturally relevant coping strategies (e.g., John Henryism) that evidence differential implications across multiple indicators of psychological and physical health (Robinson & Thomas Tobin, 2021). For example, similarly to Black women, Black girls’ SBW endorsement may be associated with beneficial and adverse health outcomes (Abrams et al., 2014; Woods-Giscombé, 2010). As such, we speculate that Black girls’ endorsement of the SBW may be protective or harmful depending on context (e.g., family vs. school) and socio-demographic characteristics (e.g., age, SES). In addition, it is possible that the negative impact of SBW endorsement has a compounding effect that takes years to manifest. Future research should examine how SBW endorsement and its influence on mental health, may differ across time and context.

Adolescence may be a critical period of gendered-racial identity development for Black girls where they begin contending with the SBW ideal. However, in adolescence, many girls may have less pressure to manage roles and responsibilities associated with adulthood (e.g., financial responsibilities, managing households, aging). Further, qualitative studies suggest that although Black girls and women may value SBW traits, they may feel that they are unable to fully achieve the expectations of the SBW ideal (Nelson et al., 2016). Consequently, it is possible that Black girls may not experience the full scope of the deleterious psychological effects associated with endorsing SBW behavioral mandates. Given that SBW did not significantly moderate the association between discrimination and internalizing symptoms, we caution against arguing that it serves as a protective coping strategy for Black girls. Future research is needed to better understand the contributing role of SBW endorsement on other dimensions of gendered-racial identity development and health.

Implications, Limitations, and Future Directions

Our study highlights that as early as adolescence, Black girls are beginning to subscribe to the idea that Black women should be strong, psychologically resilient, and pillars of the Black community. Our study also provides quantitative evidence for the associations between Black girls’ racial discrimination experiences, racial socialization, and their SBW endorsement. These findings provide the foundation for future research to longitudinally examine the development processes that shape SBW endorsement (Anyiwo, Ward, et al., 2018).

Previous empirical research highlights the deleterious impact of endorsing aspects of the SBW schema on Black adult women’s psychological wellbeing (Abrams, Hill, & Maxwell, 2019; Stanton et al., 2017; Watson & Hunter, 2016). However, this is the first known study to quantitatively examine the associations between Black girls’ SBW endorsement and mental health. Inconsistent with previous studies among Black adult women, we found no associations between Black girls’ SBW endorsement and internalizing symptoms. We speculate that adolescence may provide a fruitful time for interventions that challenge the detrimental aspects of SBW endorsement while cultivating attributes of the schema that are deemed beneficial. Indeed, beneficial aspects of the schema (e.g., resilience, independence, and strength) have contributed to the survival of Black families and communities despite experiences of systemic racism (Woods-Giscombé, 2010).

The current study has limitations that should be noted. First, this study uses a cross-sectional research design. As such, we cannot make inferences about directionality or causality. Future studies should use longitudinal methods to examine the relations between racial discrimination and socialization, SBW endorsement, and internalizing symptoms. A second limitation is that prior research on the SBW schema has predominantly focused on Black adult women’s experiences. Our SBW measure assessed Black girls’ beliefs about Black women’s strength. This information is insightful given that our participants are approaching the transition to adulthood and endorsing beliefs about how they should operate as Black women. However, in future work, it would be beneficial to identify developmentally unique ways that SBW characteristics can manifest in Black girlhood. In doing so, future work can provide clearer insight into the extent to which Black girls internalize and exhibit attributes of the SBW’s behavioral mandates.

CONCLUSION

The social constructs of race and gender interact to uniquely shape the contours of Black women and girls’ lived experiences (Belgrave, 2009; Collins, 2002). Their unique sociocultural positionality has, for many, resulted in socialization toward a staunch identification with strength as a definitive feature of Black girlhood and womanhood and a central aspect of personal identity (Abrams et al., 2014; Anyiwo, Ward, et al., 2018; West et al., 2016; Woods-Giscombé, 2010). Numerous studies have highlighted the physical, mental, and emotional costs of this strength (Abrams et al., 2019; Beauboeuf-Lafontant, 2007; Donovan & West, 2015; Watson-Singleton, 2017). Still, less is known about how SBW endorsement interacts with racial discrimination experiences to impact mental health, and much less is known about these experiences among Black girls.

As the results of this study suggest, racial discrimination, racial socialization, and strength-based coping are inextricably linked. These findings are consistent with the longstanding work of Black feminist theorists who have identified SBW internalization as a coping mechanism that has assisted Black women and girls in coping with, resisting, and transcending interlocking systems of racial and gender oppression (Collins, 2002). The findings of this study may be used to inform future research on gender roles, mental health, socio-cultural experiences of Black girls, and may assist practitioners with tailoring mental health services and programs for Black girls. Additionally, this study highlights the need for future research to elucidate the developmental process of SBW endorsement among Black girls and how the impact of the SBW schema may shift across maturation.

Acknowledgments

The material is based upon work supported by the NSF SBE Postdoctoral Fellowship under Grant No. 1911805. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. The preparation of this manuscript was partially supported by the National Institute of Minority Health and Health Disparities (K23MD016168-01; Donte L. Bernard). All views and opinions expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the funding agencies or respective institutions

Contributor Information

Nkemka Anyiwo, University of Pennsylvania.

Donte L. Bernard, Medical University of South Carolina.

Jasmine A. Abrams, Boston University School of Public Health

Alexandrea Golden, Cleveland State University.

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