Abstract
Livestock is the main backbone of the rural economy of an agriculture-based country like India. To mitigate the economic loss due to livestock’s poor performance and illness, folk phytotherapy for livestock healthcare is still actively practiced in India. Literature survey revealed that the laterite region of eastern India, characterized by its cultural, ethnic, and biological diversities, as well as topographical uniqueness, lacks comprehensive information on ethnoveterinary medicinal knowledge. The objective of the present study includes documentation of traditional knowledge of ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) from the northern laterite region in eastern India. Ethnoveterinary medicinal data were collected using a semi-structured questionnaire, free listing, and focus group discussions. The factor for informants’ consensus (Fic), fidelity level (FL), and cultural value (CV) index have been employed for quantitative analyses. Jaccard index (JI) was used to check the knowledge similarity. Altogether, 1,234 citations were made by 132 participants. In total, 232 recorded ethnomedicinal species are used for preparing 306 remedies to treat 79 health disorders of livestock. Recorded species are distributed in 92 families, and Fabaceae is identified as the most medicinally diversified. Uses of 24 angiospermic taxa, one pteridophyte, and two fungal species were exclusively new to the existing inventory of Indian traditional ethnoveterinary medicine. In 20 disease categories, the informant consensus (Fic) value ranges from 0.4 to 0.83. According to the FL value and use-mention factor, 23 EVM plants have been identified as the most important species in the respective disease categories. Value of CV index highlighted nine species as culturally most significant (CV ≥ 0.0025 and frequency of citation ≥20) in the laterite region of eastern India. A large extent of recorded data are quite worthy for the Indian folk veterinary medicinal repository. A handful of new data reported here and statistically justified culturally most significant species will provide the golden opportunity for bioprospecting research.
Keywords: ethnoveterinary medicine, livestock disease, quantitative ethnobotany, cultural value, Eastern India
1 Introduction
From the beginning of human civilization, the need for animal domestication was realized by the ancient people in every step of their shifted livelihood from hunting to farming. Over the past 11,000 years, varieties of animals have been domesticated by humans for food, secondary products, labor, and companionship (Ahmad et al., 2020; Cucchi and Arbuckle, 2021). Simultaneous developments of traditional healthcare management systems for domesticated animals have been shaped according to the continuous evolution of knowledge, culture, and local biodiversity. Traditional knowledge associated with the healthcare management of livestock is the basis of ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM). It includes people’s understanding, expertise, approach, way of application, and faith. Documentation of this age-old non-codified traditional knowledge for its larger prospects and academic interest has revolved around the wheel of research in ethnobotany that deals with the multidisciplinary approach of people–plant interactions (Gomez-Beloz, 2002). In the last three decades, many scientific articles on ethnoveterinary medicine have been published from different parts of the world (Yineger et al., 2007; Shen et al., 2010; Zia-ud-Din et al., 2010; Aziz et al., 2018; Erarslan and Kültür, 2019; Chakale et al., 2021), indicating the growing interest of the researchers in this field of ethnomedicine.
In India, the tradition of livestock rearing is prehistoric and sacrosanct. To date, livestock plays a vital role in shaping the rural economy by providing livelihood to two-thirds of rural communities, mainly the landless daily laborers, marginal and small-scale farmers, and women (Mutua et al., 2020).
Societal acceptance, emotional attachment, and economic benefit of the domesticated animals lay the foundation of livestock healthcare management in India long before the Vedic age (Somvanshi, 2006). From the very beginning, local biodiversity contributes immensely to India’s folk veterinary medicinal practices. Preparation of databases on ethnoveterinary medicinal knowledge and documentation of related medicinal plants in India are getting priority for its better scientific exploitation, resulting in a vast repository of research and review articles, thesis, and books on this subject (Jain, 1999; Pande et al., 2007; Dey and De, 2010; Galav et al., 2013; Bharali et al., 2015; Khandelwal, 2017). For ethnoveterinary data collection, focuses have been made on a particular ethnic group (Gaur et al., 2010; Kumar et al., 2012; Rajkumari et al., 2014), specific geographical area (Bharati and Sharma, 2010; Lakshminarayana and Rao, 2013; Manoranjotham and Kamaraj, 2016), particular animal group (Das, 2011; Sharma et al., 2012; Shrivastava et al., 2012; Jayakumar et al., 2017), and specific disease or ailment conditions (Mishra, 2013; Chouhan and Ray, 2015).
In West Bengal, a state of eastern India, scientific documentation of medicinal plants and related traditional knowledge has primarily been focused on ethnomedicine of human importance (Rahaman and Saha, 2011; Mondal and Rahaman, 2012; Banerjee et al., 2013; Das and Rahaman, 2014; Chaudhury et al., 2017). Phytotherapeutic knowledge of veterinary importance, traditional practitioners of veterinary medicine, and their role in primary healthcare for veterinary diseases and ailments have been overlooked initially. The documentation of ethnoveterinary medicines in West Bengal started much later, resulting in sporadic and scanty knowledge documentation (Pal, 1980; Mandal and Chauhan, 2000; Ghosh, 2003; Bandyopadhyay and Mukherjee, 2005; Mandal and Rahaman, 2014; Saha et al., 2014). Specifically, few reports on ethnoveterinary medicine have been published from districts such as Bankura, Midnapore, Purulia, Birbhum, and Burdwan, which comprise the laterite region of West Bengal (Mukherjee and Namahata, 1988; Rahaman et al., 2009; Dey and De, 2010; Mandal and Rahaman, 2016). A perusal of literature indicates a potential lack of ethnoveterinary medicinal information in this area.
In the laterite region of West Bengal, a large section of the local people mostly depends on mixed crop cultivation and livestock rearing. In this socio-economic spectrum, livestock plays a definite role in balancing the core economy of this area. Livestock keepers are concerned about the healthcare of their mute animals and mobilize themselves for innovating their ways of keeping these animals healthy.
Government-supported livestock healthcare facilities are provided in the livestock sector but remain inadequate in substantial numbers of field veterinarians, supporting staff, and health centers (NAVS, 2014). This healthcare system mostly focuses on artificial insemination of cattle, vaccination against infectious diseases, their control, and investigation programs (Ahuja et al., 2008). So, in most cases, state government-supported livestock healthcare facilities meagerly fulfill the needs of livestock owners in this region. For alleviating common health issues, folk therapies for treating animals have become obligatory and are actively practiced to date. However, ethnoveterinary medicines (EVM) have limitations in rapidly controlling epidemic infectious diseases and acute life-threatening bacterial infections. Like other folk therapeutic systems, traditional veterinary medicinal knowledge is also persisting as a non-codified system transmitted orally from generation to generation in the laterite region of West Bengal. However, the modernization of the traditional societies with rapid socio-economic, environmental, and technological changes can inevitably cause erosion of this knowledge. This ancient therapeutic knowledge remains mostly unexplored, which needs a thorough scientific study before being lost forever.
In order to add more objectivity to the ethnobiological research, the application of statistical indices for quantifying ethnobotanical data is gradually increased among ethnobotanists worldwide (Andrade-Cetto and Heinrich, 2011; Medeiros et al., 2011). Scientists now prefer ethnobotanical information measured by suitable statistical indices for bioprospecting of natural products as the ethno-guided information or leads provide more success rate than the taxonomy-guided and randomly selected leads (Rahaman, 2017). There are a few research articles on ethnoveterinary medicine published from India, where data have been analyzed using some popular statistical indices such as factor for informants’ consensus (Fic), use value (UV), relative frequency of citation (RFC), and fidelity level (FL) (Kumar et al., 2012; Kumar and Bharati, 2013; Yabesh et al., 2014; Mandal and Rahaman, 2016; Prakash et al., 2021). The formulas of FL, UV, and RFC are mainly based on its use reports and are simple percentage calculations. Nevertheless, how far are these indices relevant to effectively quantify the usefulness of a plant for a specific purpose? Rather they can be considered “statistically insufficient” to assess the true reflection of the cultural importance of a species (Leonti, 2022). In order to evaluate the actual degree of cultural acceptance of a species and its importance as a whole, a much-dedicated quantitative index based on cultural consensus should be included.
In this context, the present work has been opted for the following goals:
• To document the existing vast ethnoveterinary medicinal knowledge from the northern laterite zone in West Bengal,
• To explore the perception and depth of the knowledge among the local people of this area,
• To quantify the ethnobotanical data using suitable statistical indices.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Study Area
The state of West Bengal is located in the far most eastern part of India (22° 59′ 12.325″ N and 87° 51′ 17.914″ E). The laterite zone of West Bengal is characterized by its cultural, ethnic, and biological diversities and topographical uniqueness. It is the extended part of the eastern fringes of the Chota Nagpur plateau, which includes the western and central parts of Bankura district; western parts of Medinipur and Burdwan districts; and western, south-central, and northern parts of Birbhum district (Das, 2014). Laterite region is spanning across the latitude 22°00′ to 24°30′ N and longitude 86°45′ to 87°50′ E, and the altitude varies between 115 and 45 m. It covers an area of approximately 7,700 km2, representing 22.3% of the total geographical area of the state (Hunday and Banerjee, 1967). Soil type is red and lateritic. The climate is “dry sub-humid mega thermal.” The dry deciduous forests in this region represent nearly 15.2% of the total state geographical area. According to the Census of 2011, the percentage of Scheduled Tribes in this zone is 11.85%, and Scheduled cast is 26% (Census of India, 2011).
The study area of the present work is restricted to the northern part of the laterite zone of West Bengal, which includes mainly the western part of Burdwan district and western, south-central, and northern parts of Birbhum district. This part of the laterite region covers an area of approximately 2,290 km2, which represents 29.74% of the total laterite cover of West Bengal. Altogether, 21 blocks have been selected for the present study, 11 from Burdwan district and 10 from Birbhum district, which fall within the northern laterite region of West Bengal (Figure 1). Block is one of many small divisions of a district representing a compact area consisting of several villages.
FIGURE 1.
Map of the study area and GPS-guided locations of the participants’ residence in the northern laterite region of West Bengal, India.
2.2 Data Collection
Systematic field surveys were conducted in 21 blocks of the Birbhum and Burdwan districts in different seasons of a year from 2011 to 2018. A total of 132 participants were interviewed with the help of a semi-structured questionnaire, free listing, and focus group discussion after clearly presenting the purpose of the study and its outcome before the participants as per the stipulations of Nagoya Protocol 2014. Prior informed consent (PIC) was taken from each informant verbally before collecting the data on herbal knowledge. For the collection of data, during the field survey here, an attempt has been made to follow the best field practice as critically described earlier (Heinrich and Verpoorte, 2014; Heinrich et al., 2018; Weckerle et al., 2018), as per the code of ethics mentioned by the International Society of Ethnobiology (2006). Various visual stimuli were employed for plant identification and related data collection from the aged, and individuals with restricted movement, and female participants. For this, the fresh and/or dried plants and their parts, herbarium specimens, and photographs of the plants were exhibited to the participants to identify those plants and collection of associated ethnobotanical information (Figure 2). The authenticity of the information has always been confirmed by cross-checking other participants of the same and the other localities with the same set of questions and visual clues (Martin, 1995; Vogl et al., 2004; Thomas et al., 2007). Information on the local name of the plants, their parts use, collection, preservation, mode of preparation of remedy, its administration, and dosages were recorded in detail. The geographic location of the participants’ permanent residence was noted in the form of global positioning system (GPS) coordinates. Their photographs and socio-demographic information were also recorded.
FIGURE 2.
Ethnoveterinary data collection and identification of EVMPs: In loco identification of (A) Pueraria tuberosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) DC. and (B) Crinum asiaticum L. (C) Guided tour in a “dry-deciduous forest” of the northern laterite region, West Bengal, India. (D) Use of a twig of Solanum glaucophyllum Desf. as visual stimuli during interaction with one of the aged participants.
2.3 Collection of Plant Specimen and Preparation of Herbarium
Plants having ethnoveterinary medicinal uses were collected following the guideline set by the National Medicinal Plants Board, India (NMPB, 2015). Herbarium specimens have been prepared with the collected plant samples having specific field numbers following the techniques suggested by Jain and Rao (1977). For future reference, all the herbarium specimens have been kept in the departmental Herbarium (Visva-Bharati Herbarium, Department of Botany, Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan, India).
2.4 Identification of the Plant Specimen
The collected angiosperms were identified with the help of different Floras of West Bengal and its adjoining states (Guha Bakshi, 1984; Sanyal, 1994.; Saxena and Brahmam, 1994-1996; BSI, 1997; Paul et al., 2015; Ranjan et al., 2016). The following literature has been consulted to identify the collected species of fungi (Purkayastha and Chandra, 1985; Singer, 1986; Bilgrami et al., 1991) and species of pteridophytes (Dixit, 1984; Fraser-Jenkins, 2008). Besides, herbarium specimens housed at Central National Herbarium (CAL), BSI, Howrah, India, have also been consulted.
Two specialists finally confirmed the identification of the collected plant species after critically examining the voucher specimens.
2.5 Nomenclature Update
The nomenclature of all the collected plant species has been updated following the standard websites such as World Flora Online 1 , The Plant List 2 , Tropicos 3 , and Germplasm Resources Information Network 4 .
2.6 Data Analysis
2.6.1 Qualitative Analysis of Ethnobotanical Data
Recorded information on the local name of the plant, updated scientific name, family, voucher specimen number, parts used, collection source, mode of preparation of the remedies, and administration with dosages were tabulated systematically.
2.6.2 Quantitative Analysis of Ethnobotanical Data
The following indices are included in this study.
2.6.2.1 Factor for Informants’ Consensus
One of the most widely used indices is the factor for informants’ consensus (Fic), proposed by Heinrich et al. (1998) based on the equation of Informant Agreement Ratio introduced by Trotter and Logan (1986).
For Fic analysis, it is necessary to classify health conditions/illnesses into broad disease categories. The formula of the Fic is
where Nur refers to the number of use-reports for a particular use category/disease category and Nt refers to the number of taxa used for a particular use category/disease category by all participants.
2.6.2.2 Fidelity Level
In order to measure the reliability of the information provided by the participants, the fidelity level (FL) index is used. The value of FL is calculated following the formula:
NP is the number of respondents that claim the use of a plant species to treat a particular disease, and N is the number of respondents that use the plant as a medicine to treat any given disease (Friedman et al., 1986).
A high FL value (100%) is obtained for a plant when all the participants refer to it for the same purposes.
2.6.2.3 Cultural Value Index
The index is employed to understand the overall importance of a plant species in a particular culture (Reyes-García et al., 2006), and it is determined by the following formula:
where s indicates the ethno-species for determining cultural value. The value of the first factor of the index is obtained by dividing the total number of uses reported for the ethno-species s (NUs) by the total number of use categories considered in the study (NC). The second factor of this index does mean the relative frequency of citation (RFC), and it is obtained by dividing the frequency of citation of that particular species (FCs) by the total number of participants interviewed (N). Here, the third factor indicates the cultural importance (CI) of the species s and is calculated based on the sum of all the use reports (UR) for that particular species. Finally, the CV value is obtained by multiplying the values of these three factors.
2.6.2.4 Preference Ranking Exercise
Preference ranking exercise is carried out among the selective key participants to find preferable species out of all the plant species cited by the participants for a specific purpose (Martin, 1995). It is based on a scoring system where points ranging from 0 to 10 are given by each of the selective key participants according to their preference. The highest scoring point (i.e., 10) is given to the most preferred species, but the lowest point is 0, which is assigned to the least preferred species. Based on the total score, all the species are then ranked.
2.6.2.5 Jaccard Index
The similarity of knowledge among the participants is assessed with the help of the Jaccard index (JI) using the following formula:
where a and b are the number of plants known to the participants of areas A and B, respectively, and c is common to both A and B (Hamers, 1989).
2.6.2.6 Spearman Rank-Order Correlation
The Spearman rank-order correlation analysis is performed using R Studio 1.1.442 software to measure the strength and direction of correlation between the variables (Michelson and Schofield, 2002).
3 Results
3.1 Socio-Demography of the Participants
Altogether 132 participants were interviewed, of which 109 persons are male (82.58%) and the remaining 23 participants are female (17.42%). Participants’ socio-demographic information is presented in Supplementary Table S1. All the participants belong to seven categories according to their social designations (Figure 3). GPS coordinates of the participants’ residential location have been indicated in the study area map, which will help future researchers working in the related fields. Besides, it will strengthen the authenticity and intellectual property rights (IPR) of the knowledge providers.
FIGURE 3.
Categories of participants and numbers of individuals interviewed in each category (*Others include farmer, herdsman, shepherd, and milkman).
It was observed in the present investigation that, among all the knowledge transmission pathways, “vertical transmission” of knowledge is predominant as in most of the cases (56.06%), the traditional wisdom is conveyed from the parents to their descendants.
With the increase in age, the knowledge domain of the knowledge holder is gradually widened. Here, the knowledge about ethnoveterinary medicinal plants has been compared between the participants belonging to four different age groups employing the percentage of EVM plant knowledge possessed by them (Figure 4). The results show that the participants aged 70 years and above have extensive knowledge as they reported the highest numbers of EVM plants along with their names and uses.
FIGURE 4.
Percentage of EVM knowledge distributed in different age groups of the participants.
Altogether five barriers or constraints have been identified that hamper the knowledge transfer among the participants in the area. The most vital barrier is the modernization of the traditional society, which makes the younger generation less interested in their age-old folk therapeutic practices. The second barrier is the unavailability of forest resources. The third one is the cultural and linguistic differences between two persons of different communities. The fourth one is faith in modern medicine. In many cases, the quick healing potentiality of modern medicine attracts local people, and they become accustomed to it. The last constraint here in knowledge transmission is the “secret medicine,” which is kept secret by the knowledge holder. Before his death, the knowledge is carried forward to a reliable family member only.
3.2 Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants
3.2.1 Taxonomical Information
A total of 232 EVMPs have been recorded from the northern laterite part of West Bengal (Supplementary Table S2). All these EVMPs belong to 201 genera and 92 families. Among the recorded plant species, 194 species are of dicotyledonous plants, 33 species belong to monocotyledons, two species, namely, Adiantum philippense subsp. philippense and Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw. are of the pteridophyte group, and three species, namely, Amanita vaginata var. alba Gillet, Lycoperdon perlatum Pers., and Termitomyces heimii Natarajan belong to the group of fungi. Among the reported 92 plant families, Fabaceae is represented by the highest number of plant species (21 species). Two families, Malvaceae and Lamiaceae, are represented by ten species each; three families, Apocynaceae, Asteraceae, and Euphorbiaceae, are represented by nine plant species each, and eight species were recorded from the Solanaceae. Each of families Acanthaceae and Convolvulaceae was represented by seven species; family Rubiaceae was represented by six species; and four families (Amaranthaceae, Apiaceae, Moraceae, and Poaceae) were represented by five species each. Three families, Rhamnaceae, Vitaceae, and Zingiberaceae, were represented by four species each, and each of the six families (Araceae, Asparagaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Meliaceae, Menispermaceae, and Piperaceae) was represented by three species. The seventeen families (Anacardiaceae, Combretaceae, Myrtaceae, Phyllanthaceae, Rutaceae, Verbenaceae, etc.) were represented by two species each, whereas only one species represented the remaining 52 families.
3.2.2 Habits
Based on their habits, the recorded 232 plant species have been categorized into four groups, among which herbs dominated the list with 99 species (43%) followed by trees with 51 species (22%), shrubs with 43 species (19%), climbers with 36 species (15%), and fruit body with 3 fungal species (1%).
3.2.3 Collection Sources of the Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants
Among the 232 documented plant species, 199 species have been collected by the local people from wild sources, which indicates the richness of medicinal flora in the wild and confirms local people’s dependence on wild plant resources. Apart from it, 19 species are procured from commercial sources, and 14 species are grown in the cultivated field in the study area.
3.2.4 Plant Parts Used in Ethnoveterinary Medicine
For the preparation of ethnoveterinary medicine, plant parts are generally used in their fresh and dried form. Mainly used plant parts recorded here are underground parts (29.26%) such as root, rhizome, bulb, and tuber (Figure 5).
FIGURE 5.
Percentage composition of plant parts used in ethnoveterinary medicine.
3.2.5 Use of Animal Parts, Earth, Minerals, and Other Substances
Different animal parts, organic and inorganic materials, have also been recorded from the study area. Those substances are used to prepare various remedies. Animal body parts and their products, such as bone, tooth, feather, scale, horn, body fats, honey, and fecal matter, are used along with the plant species in preparation for ethnoveterinary medicine. Earth or soil is used in many folk medicines as one of the ingredients. Soils collected from the mouth of crab hole and termite hill are used by the indigenous people here as an additional ingredient in the preparation of many folk veterinary remedies. Minerals have also been recorded here as important ingredients: rock salt, common salt, vermilion, potassium nitrate, iron sulfate, magnesium sulfate, naphthalene, and “Sankhachurna” (powder of Conch shell, a rich source of calcium carbonate). Some organic materials are used here in the form of mustard cake, molasses, jaggery, coconut oil, mustard oil, curd or whey, camphor, sunned rice (Aatop chal), particulate rice (Khud), and “Topchini/Chobchini” (an Ayurvedic product prepared from the dried roots of Chinese Smilax, Smilax china L.).
3.2.6 Forms of Remedies Prepared
Folk herbal remedies used for curing veterinary diseases are prepared and administered in various forms to treat several livestock diseases. Fourteen different forms of remedies have been recorded based on their preparation mode. The most predominant form of remedies prepared is paste (Figure 6). The preparation of paste is a widespread form of remedy preparation in different folk and traditional systems of medicine throughout the world.
FIGURE 6.
Percentage of the different forms of ethno-remedies.
3.2.7 Mode of Administration of a Remedy
Two distinct modes of remedy administration have been recorded. The most common route of remedy administration is oral (62%), and remedies are applied in the forms of paste, juice, powder, decoction, and so on. In 32% of cases, folk preparations were administered externally as a poultice, massage, eye drops, fresh intact part of a plant, and so forth. In very minimum cases (2%), the same remedy was administered internally and externally.
Magico-religious belief in the healing of diseases is a deep-rooted integral part of the ethnic cultures. Herein, parts of 11 plants and seven animal species are used in various ways in performing the 19 cases of magico-religious practices to treat 14 diseased conditions of the domesticated animals.
3.2.8 Livestock Diseases and Diagnostic Symptoms
Totally, 79 types of health disorders that prevailed among the veterinary animals were recorded. It has been noticed that animals in this region suffer mostly from the diseases such as gastrointestinal problems, dysentery, diarrhea, fever, and illness due to poisonous effects. Knowledgeable persons of the studied area, especially a “Go-Vaidya”—traditional healer of livestock diseases—can easily identify the diseased condition by observing the general appearance and behavior of the mute animals. A list of recorded health conditions of the livestock has been provided along with local names of the diseases and their visible or diagnostic symptoms in Supplementary Table S3.
3.2.9 Enumeration of Folk Veterinary Remedies
Altogether, 232 plant species have been recorded to prepare 306 folk remedies to treat 79 types of livestock diseases in the northern laterite region of West Bengal. Out of 306 recorded folk remedies, 184 remedies are of monoherbal types where only one herbal ingredient is used. The number of polyherbal remedies recorded is 110, and it is prepared using more than one herbal ingredient. The indigenous people administer the remaining 12 remedies out of their magico-religious belief in curing certain livestock diseases.
Among the 232 recorded plant species, ten species have frequently been used as one of the ingredients in a minimal amount, along with the principal ingredient in 110 different polyherbal preparations. Those 10 species are Piper nigrum L., Curcuma longa L., Zingiber officinale Roscoe, Piper longum L., Nigella sativa L., Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague, Cuminum cyminum L., Piper cubeba L.f., Ferula assa-foetida L., and Allium sativum L. All the recorded EVMs have been enumerated in a table providing the botanical names of the EVMPs, family, voucher specimen number, common names, their parts used, diseases or health conditions treated, mode of remedy preparation, route of administration, dosages, affected animal, and the number of citations (Table 1).
TABLE 1.
Enumeration of the ethnoveterinary medicinal formulations recorded from the northern part of the laterite zone in West Bengal (n = 306). Symbols denote new reports about EVMPs (♠, new EVMPs reported from India; ♥, new in respect of the diseases cured; ▲, new in respect of remedy preparation modes; ♣, new in respect of the plant parts used).
| Sl. No. of Formulations | Scientific name and voucher specimen number | Common name | Family | Parts used | Health conditions treated, mode of remedy preparation, and its administration | Number of citations of each formulation | Animal treated |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A | Monoherbal formulations (n = 184) | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| 1 | Abelmoschus moschatus Medik. SKM12 | Musk okra | Malvaceae | Seed | Poor health: powdered seeds (100 g) are given with rice bran once a day in the morning for 1 month | 3 | Cow |
| 2 | Abrus precatorius L. SKM53 | Rosary pea | Fabaceae | Seed | 1) Loose motion: 3-4 seeds are given orally once a day for 2 days | 9 | Cow (>2 years) |
| Root | 2) Mastitis: freshly collected roots of the plant are made into a paste and mixed with the mud of crab hole; applied as a poultice on the affected nipple of mammary gland once a day for 7 days | 4 | Milch cow | ||||
| 3 | Abutilon hirtum (Lam.) Sweet ♠ SKM34 | Indian mallow | Malvaceae | Leaf | Suppurating wound: a handful of leaves are grounded to paste and applied as a poultice on the affected area twice a day for 3 days | 2 | Pig |
| 4 | Senegalia catechu (L.f.) P.J.H.Hurter and Mabb. SKM89 | Black Catechu | Fabaceae | Leaf | Diarrhea: fresh leaves (2–2.5 kg) are fed separately or with fodder twice a day for 3 days | 7 | Cow and buffalo (>2 years) |
| 5 | Vachellia nilotica subsp. indica (Benth.) Kyal. and Boatwr.SKM02 | Prickly acacia | Fabaceae | Fruits | 1) Opacity of cornea: juice is extracted from unripe fruits (250 g), mixed in 1 L of water, and given orally with a pinch of rock salt twice a day for consecutive 3 days | 4 | Bullock |
| Bark | 2) Diarrhea: bark (500 g) extract is given twice a day for 3 days along with a pinch of rock salt | 13 | Cow and buffalo (>2 years) | ||||
| 6 | Achyranthes aspera L. SKM85 | Prickly chaff flower | Amaranthaceae | Root | 1) Liver trouble: one mature root (5 cm) is made into a paste with holly water and administered orally once a day for 3 days | 5 | Cow |
| Root | 2) Maggot infested wound: root of one mature plant is made into a paste and heated for some time, lukewarm paste applied topically twice a day for 7 days | 7 | Bullock | ||||
| 7 | Acorus calamus L. SKM819 | Sweet flag | Acoraceae | Rhizome | 1) Body lice: juice is extracted from fresh rhizome and applied on the whole body once a day for consecutive 3 days | 2 | Cow |
| Rhizome | 2) Dyspepsia: dried rhizome powder is mixed with a fine dust of mustard cake. It is fed twice a day for 5–7 days | 2 | Calf | ||||
| 8 | Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Juss. ex Schult. ♠ SKM21 | Pillow-weed | Amaranthaceae | Leaf | Fractured bone: fresh leaves are made into a paste applied as a poultice on the fractured site; then, the fractured leg is tightly bound with bamboo cheeps and clothes | 3 | Goat, sheep, dog |
| 9 | Agave americana L. ♥ SKM23 | Century plant | Asparagaceae | Leaf | 1) Inflammatory swelling of shoulder: the leaves are heated slightly and squeezed to extract out the juice and then administered on the affected area of the shoulder thrice a day for 2-3 days | 5 | Bullock, buffalo |
| Leaf | 2) Broken horn: leaf paste along with the common salt is applied as a poultice over broken horn thrice a day for 7 days for quick healing | 3 | Cow | ||||
| Leaf | 3) Body ache: one mature leaf made into a paste, applied as a poultice on the affected body parts | 5 | Cow | ||||
| 10 | Alangium salviifolium (L.f.) Wangerin SKM145 | Sage-leaved alangium | Cornaceae | Leaf | 1) Liver trouble: juice is taken out from a handful of leaves and given orally once in the morning for consecutive 3 days | 2 | Donkey |
| Bark | 2) Opacity of cornea: fresh bark juice is first filtered with the help of fine cloth and given as an eye drop twice a day till the cure | 2 | Donkey, pony | ||||
| 11 | Albizia procera (Roxb.) Benth. ♠ SKM512 | White Siris | Fabaceae | Bark | Diarrhea: decoction is prepared from 250 g bark and given orally once a day for 5 days | 2 | Cow |
| 12 | Amanita vaginata var. alba Gillet ♠ SKM520 | Grisette amanita | Amanitaceae | Fruit body | Bloody dysentery: small pieces of 2-3 plants are boiled with particulate rice (Khud) and given once in the night for consecutive 3 days | 2 | Cow, bullock, buffalo |
| 13 | Amaranthus spinosus L. SKM43 | Spiny amaranth | Amaranthaceae | Whole plant | 1) Delay in parturition: one mature plant is made into paste and given with fodder once a day till the date of delivery | 5 | Gravid cow |
| Root | 2) Hemorrhagic septicemia (HS): root of one mature plant is made into paste and fed once a day for 3 days | 5 | Cow, buffalo | ||||
| Whole plant | 3) Retention of milk (Dudh-thunko): one plant is chopped into small pieces, cooked with particulate rice (Khud), and fed once a day for 15–20 days | 11 | Milch cow | ||||
| 14 | Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch. SKM213 | Wild Grape | Vitaceae | Root | 1) Snake bite: one piece of mature root (about 10 cm) is made into paste and given orally twice a day for 3 days | 2 | Cow, bullock, buffalo |
| Root | 2) Poor lactation: root (2-3 cm long) paste given orally once a day | 2 | Milch cow | ||||
| 15 | Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees SKM25 | Creat | Acanthaceae | Aerial part | Foot and mouth disease (FM): dried aerial part made into a paste with honey and given once a day for 7 days | 2 | Cow |
| 16 | Coleus strobilifer (Roxb.) A.J.Paton ♠ SKM826 | Thick-Leaf Lavender | Lamiaceae | Leaf | Cough: a handful of leaves are made into a paste and given orally with old molasses | 2 | Sheep, goat, cattle |
| 17 | Annona squamosa L. SKM64 | Custard Apple | Annonaceae | Leaf | Body lice: leaf juice is applied topically all over the body once a day till the cure | 11 | Cow, bullock, buffalo |
| 18 | Argemone mexicana L. SKM28 | Mexican prickly poppy | Papaveraceae | Leaf | Tick: leaf juice is applied thoroughly all over the body once a day for 3 days to eradicate all the ticks from the body | 3 | Dog |
| 19 | Argyreia nervosa (Burm. f.) Bojer SKM832 | Elephant Climber | Convolvulaceae | Leaf | Miscarriage: freshly collected 9–11 mature leaves are fed daily, starting from 15 days before the expected time of parturition | 2 | Gravid cow |
| 20 | Asparagus racemosus Willd. SKM134 | Shatavari | Asparagaceae | Root | Poor lactation: freshly collected 3–5 pieces of root are made into a paste and given orally on an empty stomach | 6 | Milch cow |
| 21 | Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. ♥ SKM918 | Devil’s tree | Apocynaceae | Leaf | Inflammatory swelling of shoulder: freshly collected seven leaves are made into a paste with common salt and applied as a poultice on the affected shoulder | 3 | Bullock, buffalo |
| 22 | Allium sativum L. SKM17 | Garlic | Amaryllidaceae | Bulb | Maggot infested wound (between hooves and in genital opening): nine cloves of garlic are crushed and boiled in coconut oil; this medicated oil then applied topically onto the infested area | 9 | Cow, bullock |
| 23 | Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. SKM103 | Jackfruit | Moraceae | Leaf | 1) Diarrhea: freshly collected 10–15 leaves are fed once daily till the cure | 11 | Cow |
| Leaf | 2) Swelling of dewlap: leaves (about 1 kg) are made into a paste with common salt and applied as poultice throughout the dewlap once in the morning till the cure | 2 | Bullock | ||||
| 24 | Cajanus goensis Dalzell. ♠ SKM924 | — | Fabaceae | Root | Fever: root (about 5 g) is made into a paste and fed with saline water thrice a day for 3 days | 2 | Sheep |
| 25 | Azadirachta indica A. Juss. SKM32 | Neem | Meliaceae | Leaf | 1) Body lice: leaf juice applied on the whole body thrice a week | 3 | Cow |
| Seed oil | 2) Foot and mouth disease (FM): seed oil applied twice a day onto the affected area till the cure | 3 | Cow | ||||
| 26 | Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss. SKM09 | Indian thorny bamboo | Poaceae | Leaf | Loose motion: fresh leaves (2–2.5 kg) are fed exclusively or along with the cattle feed twice a day for 2-3 days | 9 | Buffalo, cow |
| 27 | Barleria prionitis L. SKM418 | Dog bush | Acanthaceae | Leaf | Wound due to castration: a handful of leaves are crushed into a paste and mixed with mustard oil, applied as a poultice on the wound to stop bleeding and quick healing | 5 | All types of ruminants |
| 28 | Bauhinia acuminata L. SKM739 | White Bauhinia | Fabaceae | Bark | Inflammatory swelling of shoulder: lukewarm bark paste applied as a poultice on the affected area twice a day till the cure | 2 | Bullock, buffalo |
| 29 | Bombax ceiba L. SKM44 | Silk cotton tree | Malvaceae | Bark | 1) Diarrhea: dried powder of stem bark is soaked in water overnight and given orally once in the morning | 2 | Buffalo |
| Bark | 2) Diarrhea (during pregnancy): about 50 g bark is made into a paste along with cow milk and given orally twice a day for 3 days | 2 | Gravid cattle | ||||
| 30 | Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers. SKM55 | Leaf of life | Crassulaceae | Leaf | Retention of urine: leaf paste applied as a poultice on the lower abdomen once a day in the evening for 3 days | 2 | Goat, sheep |
| 31 | Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC. SKM141 | Blumea | Asteraceae | Leaf | Retention of the placenta: juice obtained from mature leaves (11 pieces) are given orally twice a day for 3 days | 3 | Cow |
| 32 | Cajanus scarabaeoides (L.) Thouars SKM584 | Showy pigeonpea | Fabaceae | Whole plant | Diarrhea: freshly collected whole plant is chopped finely and fed once in the morning for 5–7 days | 7 | Goat |
| 33 | Caladium bicolor (Aiton) Vent. ♠ SKM94 | Heart of Jesus | Araceae | Corm | Swelling wart: corm made into paste and applied as poultice on the affected area twice a day till the cure | 2 | Goat |
| 34 | Calotropis gigantea (L.) W.T.Aiton ▲ SKM73 | Giant Milkweed | Apocynaceae | Leaf | Rheumatoid arthritis (Shimola rog): 14–15 pieces of mature leaves are made into a paste and mixed with 5 g powder of Ammonium chloride (Nishadal), fecal matter of a heifer (500 g), and the required amount of soil around the mouth of crab hole. All the ingredients are taken into an earthen pot, heated for a few minutes, and applied all over the paralyzed leg twice a day till the cure | 7 | Cow, buffalo |
| 35 | Carica papaya L. SKM19 | Papaya | Caricaceae | Leaf | Loose motion: fresh leaves (1–1.5 kg) are fed exclusively once a day for 2-3 days | 11 | Calf |
| 36 | Causonis trifolia (L.) Mabb. and J.Wen SKM95 | Three-Leaved Wild Vine | Vitaceae | Whole plant | Swelling of the body due to poisoning (Sapurey): the required amount of the whole plant is made into a paste with holly water and applied topically on the whole body only once | 11 | Cow, bullock, buffalo |
| 37 | Centipeda minima (L.) A.Braun and Asch. ♠ SKM236 | Spreading Sneeze Weed | Asteraceae | Whole plant | Rhinorrhoea: freshly prepared juice is slightly heated, and lukewarm juice (two tablespoons) is applied as the nasal drop in each of the nasal openings once in the evening daily till the cure | 5 | Goat, sheep |
| 38 | Hellenia speciosa (J.Koenig) S.R.Dutta SKM547 | Crepe Ginger | Costaceae | Rhizome | Rheumatoid arthritis: rhizome (10–15 g) is made into a paste and fed with molasses once a day for 15 days | 3 | Cow |
| 39 | Chenopodium album L. SKM477 | -h-b¡-Bl¡ Goosefoot | Amaranthaceae | Whole plant | Poor lactation: whole plant (about 500 g) is given once in the morning for 1 month | 8 | Milch cow |
| 40 | Cissus quadrangularis L. SKM37 | Devil’s backbone | Vitaceae | Stem | Fractured bone: stem paste used as a poultice on the affected area and tightly wrapped with clothes remains as it is for at least 1 month | 19 | All types of small ruminant |
| 41 | Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. ♥ SKM919 | Giant dodder | Convolvulaceae | Whole plant | Food poisoning: about 250 g of plant paste is mixed well in 2 L of water and fed immediately | 3 | Cow, bullock, buffalo |
| 42 | Guilandina bonduc L. SKM174 | Grey nicker | Fabaceae | Seed | High fever: powder of 50–150 g of seeds (according to body weight) is given orally once in the morning for 3 days | 3 | Cow, bullock |
| 43 | Capparis zeylanica L. SKM39 | Ceylon Caper | Capparaceae | Stem bark | Bloat: decoction is prepared from 50 g of stem bark and given orally twice a day for 7 days | 2 | Buffalo (<2 years) |
| 44 | Capparis sepiaria L. SKM215 | Hedge caper | Capparaceae | Root | Muscle pain: root extract is given orally once a day for 3 days | 2 | Bullock |
| 45 | Cardiospermum halicacabum L. SKM456 | Balloon Vine | Sapindaceae | Root | Dysentery of a small ruminant: little amount of root is made into a paste and mixed with 500 ml of water, administered orally once a day for 3 days | 5 | Young goat and sheep (2-3 months of age) |
| 46 | Careya arborea Roxb. ♥ SKM656 | Wild guava | Lecythidaceae | Leaf | 1) Opacity of cornea: 2-3 drops of leaf juice are applied on the affected eye thrice a day till the cure | 2 | Bullock |
| Bark | 2) Dysentery: decoction made from dried bark is given orally twice a day till the cure | 2 | Cow | ||||
| Ripe fruit | 3) Constipation: fruit pulp is given orally once a day for 3 days | 2 | Cow | ||||
| 47 | Carissa spinarum L. SKM873 | Bush plum | Apocynaceae | Root | Maggot infested wound: paste prepared from 100 g of dried root is applied as a poultice on the affected area twice a day for 7 days | 2 | Cow |
| 48 | Casearia tomentosa Roxb. ♥ SKM693 | Toothed Leaf Chilla | Salicaceae | Bark | 1) Diarrhea: bark extract is given orally twice a day for 3 days | 3 | Sheep, goat |
| Bark or ripen leaf | 2) Wound due to castration: bark extract or leaf juice is applied thrice a day till the cure | 2 | Goat | ||||
| 49 | Baccharoides anthelmintica (L.) Moench SKM36 | Ironweed | Asteraceae | Seed | Fever: seed powder is given with molasses after mixing in lukewarm water once a day for consecutive three mornings | 3 | Bull |
| 50 | Cissampelos pareira L. SKM54 | Velvet Leaf | Menispermaceae | Root | Dog or snake bite: root (3–5 cm) extract is given orally as soon as possible | 7 | Cow |
| 51 | Cocculus hirsutus (L.) W.Theob. SKM458 | Broom creeper | Menispermaceae | Leaf | Body lice: leaf juice is applied on the whole body thrice a week | 2 | Goat |
| 52 | Coix lacryma-jobi L. SKM163 | Job’s tears | Poaceae | Root | Diarrhea: root decoction is given orally twice a day for 3 days | 2 | Cow |
| 53 | Coriandrum sativum L. SKM78 | Coriander | Apiaceae | Seed | 1) Haematuria: an infusion made from seed dust is given in the early morning once a day for consecutive 10–15 days | 5 | Cow |
| Whole plant | 2) Mastitis: whole plant made into a paste with holly water and applied on the stiff and painful tits twice a day till the cure | 2 | Milch cow and buffalo | ||||
| 54 | Crinum asiaticum L. SKM179 | Seashore Lily | Amaryllidaceae | Bulb | Swelling warts: poultice of tuber paste is applied on the swollen area twice a day for consecutive 7 days | 5 | Buffalo |
| 55 | Croton persimilis Müll. Arg. ♠ SKM189 | Croton Tree | Euphorbiaceae | Root | Poor lactation: paste prepared from mature root (10 cm) is given orally once in the evening for 15–20 days | 2 | Milch cow |
| 56 | Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt SKM191 | Ivy gourd | Cucurbitaceae | Leaf | 1) Whitening and watering of eyes: 2-3 drops of leaf juice is applied on the affected eye once a day for 7–10 days | 5 | Cow, buffalo |
| Fruiting shoot | 2) Poor health: finely chopped plant parts are fed once a day for 7 days | 3 | Buffalo, bullock | ||||
| 57 | Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. SKM62 | Golden eye-grass | Hypoxidaceae | Root | 1) Foot and mouth disease (FM): dried root powder is mixed with rice bran in 1:10 ratio and given orally once a day at first morning for 5–7 days | 2 | Bullock |
| Root | (ii) Poisonous bite: root (5–7 cm) made into a paste with holly water and fed quickly | 2 | Cow | ||||
| 58 | Curcuma longa L. SKM20 | Turmeric | Zingiberaceae | Rhizome | Loosening of teeth (Kalasashru): freshly collected rhizome is made into a paste and mixed with scale-ash of the Chital fish (Chitala chitala) and rock salt in 2:1:2 ratio; the entire mixture is then stirred well in mustard oil and applied at the base of the loosened teeth, wrapped with a piece of cotton and then a red hot ion rod is put on it. This practice is done once a day for successive 3 days | 2 | Bullock, buffalo |
| 59 | Volkameria inermis L. SKM564 | The glory bower | Lamiaceae | Leaf | Body lice: leaf juice is applied all over the body on alternative days for a week | 3 | Cow, bullock, goat |
| 60 | Clerodendrum infortunatum L. SKM08 | Hill glory bower | Lamiaceae | Leaf | Body lice: leaf juice is administered throughout the body once a day for 2-3 days followed by a thorough bath | 7 | Cow, bullock, goat |
| 61 | Cleome gynandra L. SKM991 | Cat’s whiskers | Cleomaceae | Whole plant | Rheumatoid arthritis (Shimola-rog): the whole plant is made into a paste with common salt and fecal matter of black goat, applied topically on the affected area once a day for 9-10 days | 2 | Bullock |
| 62 | Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott SKM76 | Taro | Araceae | Corm | Tumor: freshly collected corm is made into a paste along with common salt and applied as poultice once a day for 5–7 days | 3 | Sheep |
| 63 | Cotula anthemoides L. ♠ SKM266 | Buttonweed | Asteraceae | Whole plant | Watering of eyes: infusion is used to wash the infected eyes | 2 | Cow |
| 64 | Crotalaria quinquefolia L. SKM353 | Five Leaf Rattlepod | Fabaceae | Whole plant | A sudden decrease in milk production: the whole plant is used as cattle feed once a day for 15 days | 3 | Milch cow |
| 65 | Cyanotis tuberosa (Roxb.) Schult. and Schult.f. SKM11 | Sahyadri Dew-Grass | Commelinaceae | Root | Fever: root paste is given orally along with rice bran once a day for consecutive 3–5 days | 4 | Heifer |
| 66 | Datura stramonium L. SKM114 | Thorn apple | Solanaceae | Leaf and fruit | Food poisoning: leaves (8–10 pieces) or fruits (1 or 2) are made into a paste and administered orally once a day for at least 3 days | 4 | Cow |
| 67 | Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Ettingsh. SKM92 | Long-leaved Mistletoe | Loranthaceae | Leaf | Prolapsed uterus (Bhnaral berono): leaf extract is used as a surface disinfectant to immediately wash the oozed out uterus and then replacement in its original position is done | 4 | Cow |
| 68 | Dendrolobium triangulare (Retz.) Schindl. SKM678 | Triangular Horse Bush | Fabaceae | Leaf | Whitening of eyes: one tablespoon of leaf juice is applied dropwise on the affected eye | 2 | Calf |
| 69 | Dioscorea bulbifera L. SKM268 | Air yam | Dioscoreaceae | Tuber | Mastitis: 250–100 gm tuber is sliced and given with cattle feed once a day for 7 days | 3 | Milch cow |
| 70 | Dillenia pentagyna Roxb. SKM265 | Dog Teak | Dilleniaceae | Bark | Helminthiasis: bark powder is given orally once a day at nighttime for 7 days | 2 | Sheep |
| 71 | Wattakaka volubilis (L.f.) Stapf. SKM182 | Green Milkweed Climber | Apocynaceae | Leaf | 1) Swelling of throat: 21 leaves are made into a paste along with common salt and applied as a poultice on the affected area for consecutive 3 days | 3 | Bullock |
| Stem | 2) Discontinuity in urination/urinary incontinence: freshly collected stems are boiled with particulate rice (Khud) and given orally once a day till the cure | 9 | Cow | ||||
| 72 | Echinops echinatus Roxb. ♣ SKM421 | Indian globe thistle | Asteraceae | Tender shoot | 1) Infertility: freshly collected 2-3 tender twigs are made into a paste and fed along with paddy straw after the onset of the normal heat period | 2 | Cow |
| Whole plant | 2) Sore on shoulder: 250 g of freshly collected plants is made into a paste and applied as a poultice on the affected shoulder twice a day till the cure | 2 | Bullock, buffalo | ||||
| 73 | Enydra fluctuans DC. SKM422 | Buffalo Spinach | Asteraceae | Whole plant | Constipation: freshly collected plants (1.5–2 kg) are fed twice a day to get relief from constipation | 7 | Goat |
| 74 | Euphorbia antiquorum L. ♥ SKM302 | Triangular Spurge | Euphorbiaceae | Latex | Opacity of cornea: two drops of fresh latex is given as eye drop on the affected eye once a day for 3 consecutive mornings | 3 | Bullock |
| 75 | Euphorbia fusiformis Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don ♥ SKM93 | Pillpod spurge | Euphorbiaceae | Tuberous root | Poor lactation: fresh tuber (100–150 g) is sliced and given with rice gruel or 50 g tuber powder is fed along with rice bran once in the evening for at least 15 days | 4 | Milch cow |
| 76 | Euphorbia hirta L. SKM147 | Hairy Spurge | Euphorbiaceae | Latex | Mastitis: freshly collected latex is applied topically thrice a day till the cure | 2 | Milch cow |
| 77 | Euphorbia neriifolia L. SKM229 | Indian Spurge Tree | Euphorbiaceae | Latex and stem bark | 1) Broken horn: latex is applied on the base of the broken horn, and a poultice is made with bark, which is applied uniformly over it and then tied with cloth and left as it is for 21 days | 2 | Bullock |
| Leaves | 2) Mastitis: leaves are made into a paste along with sunned rice (Atop-chal) and applied as a poultice on the affected tits | 3 | Milch cow | ||||
| 78 | Ficus benghalensis L. SKM06 | Indian banyan | Moraceae | Prop root | Dysentery: the soft, red, apical parts of prop roots (12–15 cm long) are given exclusively or along with the cattle feed, twice a day for 2-3 days. Dose: cow and buffalo—6 to 7 pieces, goat and sheep—2 to 3 pieces | 9 | Cow, buffalo, goat, sheep |
| 79 | Ficus religiosa L. SKM82 | Sacred Fig Tree | Moraceae | Leaf | Foot and mouth disease (FM) (Pankui): 5 or 6 fresh leaves are made sacred by some religious ritual (i.e., name of the lord “Arjuna” is written 12 times on each leaf) and fed twice a day for 3 days | 3 | Cow |
| 80 | Ficus racemosa L. SKM109 | Cluster fig | Moraceae | Fruit | Constipation: sliced mature fruit is given orally | 3 | Bullock |
| 81 | Gardenia latifolia Aiton SKM1113 | Indian Boxwood | Rubiaceae | Bark | Wound: bark decoction applied on the wound twice a day till cured | 2 | Sheep, goat, cow |
| 82 | Gloriosa superba L. SKM908 | Flame lily | Colchicaceae | Tuber | 1) Prolapsed uterus: extract of the tuber is applied externally to wash the oozed out uterus | 7 | Cow |
| — | Tuber | 2) Abscess in liver: tuber paste is given with molasses once a day for at least 1 month | 2 | Bullock | |||
| 83 | Adina cordifolia (Roxb.) Brandis SKM912 | Heart-leaf adina | Rubiaceae | Tender leaf | Opacity of cornea: leaf juice is applied as eye drop once in the morning till cured | 2 | Sheep |
| 84 | Helicteres isora L. SKM817 | Indian screw tree | Malvaceae | Fruit | 1) Bloody dysentery: dried fruits (3–5 pieces) are made into a paste with a pinch of black salt and given twice a day for 3 days | 3 | Cow |
| Leaf | 2) Poisonous bite: leaf paste is used as a poultice on the biting site | 7 | Goat | ||||
| 85 | Strobilanthes hirta (Vahl) Blume SKM791 | Red Ivy | Acanthaceae | Whole plant | Haematuria: freshly collected plants (250 g) are made into a paste, mixed in 1 L of water, and fed the entire preparation with the help of a bottle | 7 | Cow |
| 86 | Hibiscus cannabinus L. SKM1133 | Deccan hemp | Malvaceae | Leaf | Constipation: 250–300 g of fresh leaves are given orally once a day for 3 days | 2 | Bullock |
| 87 | Hydrolea zeylanica (L.) Vahl ♠ SKM549 | Ceylon Hydrolea | Hydroleaceae | Whole plant | Wound: a bunch of whole plant is made into a paste and applied topically once daily till cured | 3 | Bullock |
| 88 | Mesosphaerum suaveolens (L.) Kuntze ♥ SKM128 | Mint Bush | Lamiaceae | Leaf | Fresh cuts and wounds: leaf juice is applied as a hemostatic agent | 4 | Bullock, buffalo |
| 89 | Ipomoea cairica (L.) Sweet ♠ SKM239 | Messina Creeper | Convolvulaceae | Tuber | Helminthosis (with stomachache): tuber (100–150 g) made into a paste with holly water and given with fodder once a day for 3 days | 2 | Cow |
| 90 | Ipomoea carnea Jacq. SKM137 | Bush Morning Glory | Convolvulaceae | Soft stem | Poor lactation: small pieces are boiled with particulate rice and given at night once a day for 5–7 days | 5 | Milch cow |
| 91 | Ipomoea obscura (Linn.) Ker.-Gowl. ♠ SKM457 | Obscure Morning Glory | Convolvulaceae | Leaf | Broken horn: leaf paste is mixed with coconut oil and heated slightly. This lukewarm paste is then applied as a poultice at the base of the broken area and tightly wrapped with a cloth | 2 | Goat |
| 92 | Jatropha nana Dalzell and A.Gibson ♠ SKM151 | Dwarf Jatropha | Euphorbiaceae | Tuberous root | Retention of milk: dried root powder is given orally once a day for 10–15 days (sometimes fed with finely pounded mustard cake) | 3 | Milch cow |
| 93 | Justicia adhatoda L. SKM184 | Malabar nut | Acanthaceae | Leaf | Body swelling due to cold (Jol-sannipat): leaf paste is heated slightly and applied on the whole body surface twice a day for 3 days | 3 | Cow |
| 94 | Justicia gendarussa Burm.f. ♥ SKM339 | Willow-leaved Justicia | Acanthaceae | Root | Helminthosis: root (5–7 g) paste is given with lukewarm water once at night for 7 days | 3 | Cow |
| 95 | Jatropha gossypiifolia L. SKM192 | Bellyache bush | Euphorbiaceae | Seed | Constipation: seed paste is given orally to treat constipation | 2 | Goat |
| 96 | Lawsonia inermis L. SKM657 | Henna tree | Lythraceae | Leaf | Foot and mouth disease (FM): leaf paste is applied topically on the affected area twice a day till the cure | 5 | Cow |
| 97 | Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R.Br. SKM638 | Christmas candlestick | Lamiaceae | Root | Mastitis: root paste is applied as a poultice on the whole udder and tits twice a day for 3 days | 2 | Milch cow |
| 98 | Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng. SKM676 | Lemon bush | Verbenaceae | Whole plant | Tick: freshly collected plant is made into a paste and applied topically all over the body once a day for 3 days | 2 | Cow |
| 99 | Linum usitatissimum L | jp-e Linseed | Linaceae | Seed oil | Constipation: oil is extracted from 750 g to 1 kg of seeds and given half of it at a time orally twice a day for 3 days | 7 | Bullock, buffalo |
| 100 | Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C. B. Rob. ♥ SKM722 | Bolly beech | Lauraceae | Bark | 1) Loose motion: 1 L of water emulsion is prepared from 200 g of freshly made bark paste and given twice a day for 3 days | 4 | Cow, buffalo |
| Bark | 2) Dislocation of joints: bark is made into a paste and heated slightly. After application of this lukewarm paste on the affected area, a tight bandage of bamboo stick is provided | 6 | Cow | ||||
| 101 | Ludwigia adscendens (L.) H.Hara ♠ SKM834 | Water Primrose | Onagraceae | Whole plant | Infertility: freshly collected plants (size must be 1/3 the body length of the cattle treated) are chopped into small pieces and fed along with paddy straw once a day for a month, starting from the onset of the normal heat period | 2 | Heifer |
| 102 | Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb | Ridged Gourd | Cucurbitaceae | Dried fruit fiber | Cold, cough, and watering of nose: affected animals are separately kept in a room of cowshed; dried fruit fibers are kept inside it and fired to produce smoke as a remedy | 11 | Bullock |
| 103 | Luffa aegyptiaca Mill. SKM161 | Sponge gourd | Cucurbitaceae | Dried fruit fiber | Cold, cough, and watering of the nose: smoke is produced by burning the dried fruit fibers in a separate room of a cowshed, and affected animals are kept there for some time for quick healing | 7 | Bullock |
| 104 | Lycoperdon perlatum Pers. SKM91 | Puffball | Agaricaceae | Spore | Ulcerated wound: spore dust is applied topically on the affected part once a day for 5 days | 5 | Sheep |
| 105 | Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.) Dubard SKM341 | Ceylon wood | Sapotaceae | Stem bark | Tonsillitis: bark is made into a paste along with the mud of crab hole and warmed slightly; poultice: twice a day till the cure (applied on the outer side of lower jaws) | 2 | Bullock |
| 106 | Martynia annua L. SKM441 | Tiger’s claw | Martyniaceae | Leaf | Wound: leaf decoction is applied topically to disinfect the wound | 2 | Goat |
| 107 | Mimosa pudica L. SKM641 | Touch-me-not | Fabaceae | Root | Maggot infested wound: root paste is applied topically twice a day for 5 days | 7 | Cow |
| 108 | Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth. SKM761 | Kaim | Rubiaceae | Bark | Septic wound: bark juice applied topically to wash the wound | 2 | Sheep, goat, pig |
| 109 | Moringa oleifera Lam. SKM846 | Drumstick tree | Moringaceae | Root | Food poisoning: juice is made from 250 g of root and mixed well in 2 L of water and given immediately | 5 | Cow |
| 110 | Musa paradisiaca L. ♥ SKM31 | Banana | Musaceae | Corm | 1) Haematuria: the corm of a post-fruiting plant is collected and sliced into several small pieces and then kept in cold water overnight. The pieces along with that water is administered twice a day for 2-3 days (for immature —once a day). | 4 | Cow |
| Leaf | 2) Loose motion: 1 or 2 leaves are fed solely twice a day for 2-3 days | 8 | Cow | ||||
| 111 | Nerium oleander L. SKM67 | Oleander rose-bay | Apocynaceae | Leaf | Mastitis: leaf paste is used as a poultice on the affected tits twice a day till cured | 2 | Milch cow |
| 112 | Nicotiana rustica L. ▲♥ | Aztec tobacco | Solanaceae | Leaf | Maggot infested wound: 10 g of leaf powder of tobacco and 100 g powder of “Sankhachurna” are mixed with mustard oil and administered on the wound many times a day for a few days | 3 | Bullock, buffalo |
| 113 | Nigella sativa L | Black cumin | Ranunculaceae | Seed | Mastitis: seeds are boiled with particulate rice (“Khud”) grain and fed daily once in a day | 7 | Milch cow |
| 114 | Nymphaea nouchali Burm.f. SKM752 | Red Water Lily | Nymphaeaceae | Rhizome | Stop mastication: rhizome paste is given orally | 2 | Bullock |
| 115 | Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz ♣ SKM519 | Indian trumpet tree | Bignoniaceae | Flower | Mastitis: flower paste is applied as a poultice on cracked nipples twice a day for 7 days | 2 | Milch cow and buffalo |
| 116 | Papaver somniferum L. ♥ | Opium poppy | Papaveraceae | Fruit coat | Bloody dysentery: fruit coat (200 g) is soaked in 2 L of water overnight and then boiled and condensed to 500 ml. The boiled fruit coats are squashed and strained. Whole soup is then administered of a dose of 25–30 ml, 3-4 times a day for a few days | 5 | Cow |
| 117 | Phoenix acaulis Roxb. ♠ SKM205 | Dwarf date palm | Arecaceae | Tender Leaf | 1) Retention of milk (post-parturition): freshly collected tender leaves are chopped finely and fed once a day for 10–15 days | 4 | Cow |
| Soft root | 2) Dystocia (difficulty in parturition): soft roots (50 g) are made into a paste and fed along with rice gruel once a day for 10 days till the expected date of parturition to avoid any difficulty in it | 2 | Cow | ||||
| 118 | Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene SKM362 | Frog fruit | Verbenaceae | Whole plant | Dyspepsia of calf: freshly collected plants are chopped finely and given orally once a day for 15–20 days | 2 | Heifer |
| 119 | Polygala arvensis Willd. ♥ SKM108 | Field Milkwort | Polygalaceae | Whole plant | Nervine disease/listeriosis (Gai-ghuro): a bunch of whole plants is chopped finely and given with paddy straw once in the morning for 9 days | 2 | Cow |
| 120 | Portulaca oleracea L. SKM720 | Common purslane | Portulacaceae | Whole plant | Mastitis: plant paste is given orally once a day for 7 days | 2 | Goat |
| 121 | Pueraria tuberosa (Willd.) DC. ♥ SKM188 | Indian kudzu | Fabaceae | Tuber | 1) Helminthosis: sliced pieces of tuber are fed along with paddy straw or with rice gruel once in the morning for three consecutive days | 17 | Cow, buffalo |
| Tuber | 2) Poor lactation: sliced pieces of tuber (fresh or dried form) are given orally once a day for 15 days | 3 | Cow | ||||
| Tuber | 3) General weakness: sliced pieces are soaked overnight in rice gruel and fed the whole thing in the next morning | 7 | Milch cow and buffalo | ||||
| 122 | Psidium guajava L. SKM370 | Guava | Myrtaceae | Bark | Cuts and wounds: bark decoction is applied on the affected area as a disinfectant | 3 | Cow, bullock, buffalo, goat, sheep |
| 123 | Rivea hypocrateriformis Choisy SKM77 | Common Night Glory | Convolvulaceae | Soft stem | Fractured bone: plant paste is applied as a poultice on the affected area and wrapped tightly with bamboo sticks and left as it is for 1 month | 4 | Bullock |
| 124 | Santalum album L. SKM311 | Sandalwood | Santalaceae | Bark | Fever: paste of bark (100–150 g) is given orally once a day for 2 days | 3 | Cow |
| 125 | Scoparia dulcis L. ♥ SKM10 | Sweet-broom | Plantaginaceae | Whole plant | Retention of urine: water emulsion is prepared in 1 L of water with 100 g of plant paste and drench once a day for 7 days | 3 | Sheep, goat |
| 126 | Schoenoplectiella articulata (L.) Lye ♥ SKM313 | Jointed Sedge | Cyperaceae | Seed | Wound due to castration: seed dust is boiled in coconut oil and applied topically on the affected area thrice a day for 3 days | 2 | Goat |
| 127 | Semecarpus anacardium L.f. SKM513 | Marking nut | Anacardiaceae | Seed | Liver trouble: 2 or 3 seeds are fed once a week to strengthen liver function | 3 | Cow |
| 128 | Senna occidentalis (L.) Link SKM105 | Antbush | Fabaceae | Root | Diarrhea: root (5–7 g) paste is given orally twice a day for 5 days | 5 | Sheep |
| 129 | Dracaena angolensis (Welw. ex Carrière) Byng & Christenh. SKM110 | Spear Sansevieria | Asparagaceae | Root | Swelling wart: root paste is applied twice a day on the affected area till the cure | 2 | Goat |
| 130 | Sesamum indicum L. | Sesame | Pedaliaceae | Seed | Retention of milk: seed (200 g) paste is soaked in water along with mustard cake for 6–8 h and given orally once a day on alternate days for a week | 6 | Milch buffalo |
| 131 | Seseli diffusum (Roxb. ex Sm.) Santapau & Wagh ♠ SKM788 | Indian celery | Apiaceae | Whole plant | Urinary incontinence: a bunch of freshly collected plants in its fruiting stage is given orally once a day till cured | 2 | Cow |
| 132 | Smilax ovalifolia Roxb. ex D.Don SKM201 | Kumarika | Smilacaceae | Root | 1) Body ache: root paste is mixed with mud of termite hill and applied on the affected area | 3 | Bullock |
| Leaf | 2) Indigestion: fresh leaves are chopped and fed once in the morning for 15 days | 2 | Sheep | ||||
| 133 | Solanum violaceum Ortega SKM119 | Indian Nightshade | Solanaceae | Whole plant | Poisoning of grazing animal: one plant is slightly toasted first and then made into small pieces and fed immediately along with the cattle feed | 5 | Cow, bullock, buffalo, horse |
| 134 | Solanum sisymbriifolium Lam. SKM29 | Sticky nightshade | Solanaceae | Whole plant | Infectious disease: one mature plant in its fruiting stage is collected, ground finely, and given thrice a week | 6 | Cow |
| 135 | Solanum torvum Sw. ♥ SKM601 | Turkey Berry | Solanaceae | Fruit | Bloat: 9–11 pieces of ripe fruits are given once a day for 3 days | 2 | Sheep, goat |
| 136 | Soymida febrifuga (Roxb.) A. Juss. SKM99 | Indian Redwood | Meliaceae | Bark | 1) Dysentery: juice is prepared from freshly collected bark and given twice a day for 3 days | 7 | Cow |
| Leaf | 2) Retention of placenta: nine leaves are fed in the first morning for 2 days | 3 | Cow | ||||
| 137 | Sphaeranthus indicus L. SKM901 | East Indian Globe Thistle | Asteraceae | Whole plant | Wound: plant paste is applied as a poultice on the affected area | 5 | Bullock |
| 138 | Strychnos nux-vomica L. SKM402 | Nux vomica | Loganiaceae | Bark | Bloody dysentery: 5–10 g stem bark is made into a paste with common salt and fed along with cattle fed once a day till cured | 4 | Cow |
| 139 | Swertia chirayita (Roxb.) H.Karst | Chirayata | Gentianaceae | Whole plant | Constipation: certain amount of dried plant along with rock salt is made into powder and given twice a day for several days | 6 | Cow, buffalo |
| 140 | Tamarindus indica L. SKM211 | Tamarind | Fabaceae | Fruit pulp | Food poisoning: fruit pulp (250 g) is mixed with 2 L of water and given immediately | 5 | Cow |
| 141 | Tamilnadia uliginosa (Retz.) Tirveng & Sastre SKM1138 | Divine Jasmine | Rubiaceae | Fruit | Dysentery: one teaspoon full of dust of mature fruit is given once in the morning for 3 days | 2 | Goat |
| 142 | Termitomyces heimii Natarajan ♠ SKM124 | Termite mound mushroom | Lyophyllaceae | Whole fruit body | General weakness: dust is given with rice bran once a day thrice a week for 1 month | 2 | Bullock, buffalo |
| 143 | Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. SKM251 | Heart-leaved moonseed | Menispermaceae | Stem | Poor lactation: mature stem (500 g) is boiled with particulate rice and fed daily for 10–15 days | 5 | Milch cow |
| 144 | Trianthema portulacastrum L. SKM909 | Desert horsepurslane | Aizoaceae | Leaf | Opacity of cornea: leaf juice is applied on the affected eye till cured | 2 | Goat, sheep |
| 145 | Tribulus terrestris L. ♥ SKM710 | Puncture Vine | Zygophyllaceae | Leaf | Bloat: fresh leaves are fed with a pinch of rock salt twice a day for 3 days | 3 | Sheep |
| 146 | Typhonium trilobatum (L.) Schott ♥ SKM811 | Bengal Arum | Araceae | Tuber | Swelling wart: tuber paste applied on the affected area twice a day for 5 days | 4 | Goat |
| 147 | Urena lobata L. SKM304 | Caesarweed | Malvaceae | Root | Body lice: juice made from fresh root is applied on the whole body once a day for consecutive 3 days | 3 | Cow |
| 148 | Uraria lagopoides (L.) DC. ♠ SKM612 | Hare Foot Uraria | Fabaceae | Whole plant | Diarrhea of small ruminant: whole plant is chopped finely and fed once in the evening for 3–5 days | 2 | Goat |
| 149 | Vanda tessellata (Roxb.) Hook. ex G.Don SKM451 | Grey orchid | Orchidaceae | Aerial root | Swelling wart: root made into a paste and applied topically on the affected area once a day for 7 days | 2 | Goat |
| 150 | Holarrhena pubescens Wall. ex G.Don SKM03 | Bitter Oleander | Apocynaceae | Seed | Fever with stomach problems and pulmonary congestion: seeds (Indrajob) are made into a paste along with potassium nitrate (4:1) and administered twice a day for 5 days | 2 | Cow |
| 151 | Xanthium strumarium L. SKM301 | Rough cocklebur | Asteraceae | Leaf | Retention of urine: leaves are made into a paste along with common salt and applied as a poultice on the lower abdomen once a day for 5–7 days | 3 | Cow |
| 152 | Ziziphus nummularia (Burm.f.) Wight and Arn. ♥ SKM48 | Wild jujube | Rhamnaceae | Leaf | Rhinorrhoea: dried leaves are fired to get smoke in the cowshed where the affected cow is tied for a few hours | 9 | Cow |
| 153 | Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Mill. SKM57 | Jackal jujube | Rhamnaceae | Bark | Suppurating wound: freshly collected bark (250 g) is soaked in water overnight, and the next morning, the wound is washed with this water. This practice is continued daily till cured | 2 | Bullock |
| B | Polyherbal formulations (n = 110) | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| 154 | Abrus precatorius L. | — | — | Seed | Loose motion: 4-5 seeds of A. precatorius are given with bamboo leaves once a day for 2-3 days | 7 | Goat |
| Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss. | — | — | Leaf | ||||
| 155 | Abrus precatorius L.▲ | — | — | Seed | Diarrhea and dysentery: 4-5 Abrus seeds are made into paste along with 100 g bamboo leaves and little amount of feather of Coracias benghalensis L. (Indian roller, “Nilkantha”), applied orally once a day for 3 days | 16 | Cow |
| Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss. | — | — | Leaf | ||||
| 156 | Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R.Br. ▲ | — | — | Root | Mastitis: roots of L. nepetifolia and A. precatorius (2:1) is made into a paste and applied as a poultice on the mammary gland twice a day for 3 days | 2 | Milch cow |
| Abrus precatorius L. | — | — | Root | ||||
| 157 | Abrus precatorius L. | — | — | Root | Cold and cough: 5 g root of A. precatorius and 21 grains of black pepper are made into a paste and given once a day in empty stomach in the morning for consecutive 3 days | 2 | Goat, sheep |
| Piper nigrum L. | Black pepper | Piperaceae | Fruit | ||||
| 158 | Senegalia catechu (L.f.) P.J.H.Hurter and Mabb. | — | — | Latex | Loose motion: dried latex of catechu (200 g), chalk (1 kg), and iron sulfate (200 g) are ground into powder separately and then mixed with root powder of Piper cubeba (200 g) and administered twice a day for 2-3 days. Simultaneously with this administration, the paste of sunned rice is given once a day. Dose: for goat—5 to 10 g, for cow—50 g or more and buffalo-100 g or more | 2 | Bullock, buffalo |
| Piper cubeba L.f. | Java pepper | Piperaceae | Root | ||||
| 159 | Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa SKM101 | Stone apple | Rutaceae | Bark | Poor health: a decoction is prepared from bark of A. marmelos (250 g), bark of V. nilotica subsp. indica (250 g), bark of A. salvifolium (150 g), bark of A. nilotica (150 g), rhizome of N. (100 g), and and whole plant of T. natans (100 g) or tuber of P. tuberosa (200 g). This preparation is used as a tonic and given once a day for 7–10 days | 2 | Cow, bullock |
| Vachellia nilotica subsp. indica (Benth.) Kyal. and Boatwr. | — | — | Bark | ||||
| Alangium salviifolium (L.f.) Wangerin ♥ SKM145 | — | — | Bark | ||||
| Azadirachta indica A. Juss. | — | — | Bark | ||||
| Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. SKM152 | Indian lotus | Nelumbonaceae | Rhizome | ||||
| Trapa natans L. SKM306 | Water nut | Lythraceae | Whole plant | ||||
| Pueraria tuberosa (Willd.) DC. | — | — | Tuber | ||||
| 160 | Achyranthes aspera L. ▲ | — | — | Root | Fever of gravid cow: roots of Achyranthes—2 to 3 pieces (5–7 cm long), 2 spoonfuls of seeds of Nigella sativa are ground together into a paste and fed along with mucilaginous extract of Aloe vera leaf (locally known as “Musabbar”) twice a day for 2-3 days | 11 | Gravid cow |
| Nigella sativa L. | — | — | Seed | ||||
| Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. SKM40 | Aloe | Asphodelaceae | Leaf | ||||
| 161 | Achyranthes aspera L. | — | — | Root | Fever: root of one mature A. aspera plant and 9 grains of black pepper are made into a paste and mixed with water to be fed twice a day for 5–7 days | 13 | Bullock |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 162 | Solanum glaucophyllum Desf. SKM193 | Waxyleaf Nightshade | Solanaceae | Stem | Fever: three pieces of dried stem of S. glaucophyllum (5 cm), whole plant of S. dulcis (100 g), and root of A. aspera (50 g) are made into a paste and given orally twice a day for 7 days | 3 | Cow |
| Scoparia dulcis L. | — | — | Whole plant | ||||
| Achyranthes aspera L. | — | — | Root | ||||
| 163 | Achyranthes aspera L. | — | — | Root | Fever of heifer (immature cow): roots of Achyranthes and S. surattense (3:1) are made into a paste and given orally once a day for 3 days | 5 | Heifer |
| Solanum virginianum L. SKM115 | Surattense nightshade | Solanaceae | Root | ||||
| 164 | Pleurolobus gangeticus (L.) J.St.-Hil. ex H.Ohashi and K.Ohashi ♥ SKM171 | Sal Leaved Desmodium | Fabaceae | Whole plant | Hemorrhagic septicemia (HS): one entire plant of Pleurolobus, 5–7 g of Achyranthes roots, and 21 grains of black pepper are made into a paste together, fed along with old molasses once a day till the cure | 9 | Cow |
| Achyranthes aspera L. | — | — | Root | ||||
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 165 | Adiantum philippense subsp. philippense ♠ SKM90 | Maidenhair fern | Pteridaceae | Whole plant | Fever: a handful of freshly collected whole plant of A. philippense subsp. philippense is given orally along with black pepper once a day till the cure | 3 | Goat, sheep |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 166 | Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Juss. ex Schult | — | — | Shoot | Lameness in the hind leg due to stiffness of medial collateral ligament (“Shir-taan”): bulbous root of E. explanata, tender shoot of A. javanica, aerial part of A. paniculata, soil of crab hole, and little amount of camphor are ground together and mixed well, heated slightly, and applied as a poultice on the affected leg twice a day for 5–7 days | 3 | Bullock |
| Eulophia explanata Lindl. ♠ SKM200 | Flattened Eulophia | Orchidaceae | Bulb | ||||
| Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees | — | — | Shoot | ||||
| 167 | Ouret lanata (L.) Kuntze SKM123 | Aerva | Amaranthaceae | Whole plant | Wound in the large intestine: whole plant of A. lanata (100 g) is made into a paste along with 10 g of freshly collected turmeric (Curcuma longa) and 10 g of black cumin (N. sativa) or ajwain (T. ammi) and administered orally twice a day for 7 days | 3 | Bullock |
| Curcuma longa L. | — | — | Rhizome | ||||
| Nigella sativa L. | — | — | Seed | ||||
| Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague | Caraway | Apiaceae | Fruit | ||||
| 168 | Ouret lanata (L.) Kuntze ♥ | — | — | Whole plant | Foot and mouth disease (FM): 200 g of A. lanata plant is made into a paste along with freshly collected turmeric (50 g) and black cumin seed (5 g), given orally as well as applied topically on the affected area once a day till cured | 3 | Cow, bullock, buffalo |
| Curcuma longa L. | — | — | Rhizome | ||||
| Nigella sativa L. | — | — | Seed | ||||
| 169 | Alangium salviifolium (L.f.) Wangerin | — | — | Bark | Retention of the placenta: powder of dried flowers of B. ceiba (10 g) is mixed with the powdered stem bark (5 g) of A. salviifolium and given to the animal for quick expulsion of the placenta after vaginal delivery of the newborn | 2 | Cow |
| Bombax ceiba L. | — | — | Flower | ||||
| 170 | Myristica fragrans Houtt. | Nutmeg | Myristicaceae | Fruit | Body ache: five fruits of Myristica and 250 g of Amaranthus stem are made into a paste and applied as a poultice on the affected body part. Before this practice, the affected area is compressed with hot saline water twice a day, and simultaneously an Ayurvedic product is known as “Chobchini/Topchini” is fed along with sugar in the quantity of 5 g once in a day | 2 | Bullock, buffalo |
| Amaranthus spinosus L. | — | — | Stem | ||||
| 171 | Amaranthus spinosus L. | — | — | Root | Fever: root of Amaranthus—2 pieces (6-7 cm long), mustard seed (50 g), and 21 grains of black pepper are ground together and mixed with holy water. The mixture is then administered once a day for at least 3 days | 2 | Cow |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| Brassica nigra (L.) W.D.J.Koch SKM26 | Black mustard | Brassicaceae | Seed | ||||
| 172 | Lysimachia arvensis (L.) U.Manns and Anderb. SKM721 | Scarlet pimpernel | Primulaceae | Whole plant | Throat sore: whole plant of L. arvensis (500 g) made into a paste with 100 g of fresh Curcuma and applied topically on the affected area twice a day for 3–5 days followed by hot compress | 2 | Bullock |
| Curcuma longa L. | — | — | Rhizome | ||||
| 173 | Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. SKM323 | Pineapple | Bromeliaceae | Leaf | Helminthiasis: 250 g of leaf is made into a paste and given with 9–21 grains of black pepper once at night for consecutive 5 days | 5 | Bullock |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 174 | Solanum virginianum L. | — | — | Root | High fever: an entire mature plant of A. paniculata and one-piece of root (5 cm) of S. surattense are made into a paste along with 10 g of black pepper and 10 g of Ajwain. To mature one, this whole mixture of plant paste is given once a day for 3 days | 4 | Cow |
| Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees | — | — | Shoot | ||||
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 175 | Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees | — | — | Whole plant | Snakebite: one mature plant and 21 grains of black pepper are made into a paste and mixed with water to make a water emulsion; orally | 9 | Bullock |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 176 | Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees | — | — | Shoot | Foot and mouth disease (FM): dried aerial part of one mature plant is made into a paste along with fresh turmeric (5 g) and given orally mixed with old molasses once a day for 7 days | 4 | Cow, bullock |
| Curcuma longa L. | — | — | Rhizome | ||||
| 177 | Aristolochia indica L. SKM63 | Indian Birthwort | Aristolochiaceae | Root | Dyspepsia of the calf: 15–20 g of Aristolochia root, 5 g of clove, and 5 g of black pepper are crushed and fed along with the cattle feed twice a day for a few days | 3 | Heifer |
| Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. and L. M. Perry | Clove | Myrtaceae | Flower bud | ||||
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 178 | Aristolochia indica L. | — | — | Root | Snakebite: three pieces of the root of Aristolochia (5–6 cm in size) are made into a paste along with 21 grains of black pepper and given orally twice a day after an interval of 8 h | 17 | Bullock |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 179 | Asparagus racemosus Willd. | — | — | Root | Haematuria: fresh root is given with black pepper | 7 | Gravid cow |
| Piper nigrum L. | Fruit | ||||||
| 180 | Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br | — | — | Bark | Loose motion: decoction is prepared from 100 g of Alstonia bark and 9 grains of black pepper, given orally twice a day for 3 days | 4 | Bullock |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 181 | Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br | — | — | Bark | Helminthosis: 250 g of Alstonia bark, 21 grains of black pepper, and a pinch of rock salt are made into a paste, given orally once at night for 7 days | 3 | Goat, sheep |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 182 | Azadirachta indica A. Juss | — | — | Leaf | Dysentery: leaves of Azadirachta and rhizome of Curcuma (4:1) are made into a paste by maintaining some holly rituals and given orally twice a day for 3 days | 9 | Cattle |
| Curcuma longa L. | — | — | Rhizome | ||||
| 183 | Azanza lampas (Cav.) Alef. SKM435 | Common mallow | Malvaceae | Root | Poor lactation: 3-4 pieces of Azanza root (5 cm) and 11 grains of black pepper are made into a paste and given once a day for 15 days | 3 | Milch cow |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 184 | Barleria prionitis L. | — | — | Shoot | Post-partum debility: the plant parts like 250 g shoot of B. prionitis and 21 grains of black pepper are ground together to prepare a paste and administered orally twice a day for 1 month | 3 | Cow |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 185 | Biophytum sensitivum (L.) DC. ♥ SKM640 | — | — | Root | Stop mastication: 3-4 roots (5 cm) are fed with 21 grains of black pepper once a day for at least 7 days to regularize the digestion process | 2 | Bullock |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 186 | Boerhavia diffusa L. SKM165 | Red Spiderling | Nyctaginaceae | Stem | Post-parturition bleeding: 100 g of the freshly collected stem of B. diffusa is made into a paste along with 9–11 black pepper and fed once a day for 3 days | 4 | Buffalo |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 187 | Vitex negundo L. SKM208 | Chinese chaste tree | Lamiaceae | Leaf | Body swelling due to cold (Jol-sannipat): leaf of Vitex, leaf of Datura, and shoot of B. vitis idaea (2:2:1) are made into a paste and mixed with the soil of crab hole or sunned rice (Atop-chal), heated for some time, and lukewarm paste is applied as poultice throughout the body twice a day | 6 | Bullock |
| Datura stramonium L. | — | — | Leaf | ||||
| Breynia vitis-idaea (Burm.f.) C.E.C.Fisch. ♠ SKM27 | Indian snowberry | Phyllanthaceae | Shoot | ||||
| 188 | Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers. SKM55 | Cathedral bells | Crassulaceae | Leaf | Dysuria (retention of urine and difficulty in micturition): leaves of B. pinnatum (9–12 pieces) and 9–21 grains of black pepper are made into a paste and given orally twice a day for 7–10 days | 6 | Cow |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 189 | Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC. | — | — | Leaf | Cough: 5–6 leaves of B. lacera, 10 g of T. ammi, 10 g of C. longa, or 25 g of Z. officinale are made into a paste and given orally in the morning and evening of a day for 7 days | 2 | Heifer |
| Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| Curcuma longa L. | — | — | Rhizome | ||||
| Zingiber officinale Roscoe | Ginger | Zingiberaceae | Rhizome | ||||
| 190 | Calotropis gigantea (L.) W.T.Aiton | — | — | Leaf | Fever: 2-3 leaves are made into a paste along with 21 grains of black pepper and given orally twice a day for 3–5 days | 3 | Cattle |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 191 | Calotropis gigantea (L.) W.T.Aiton | — | — | Root | Poisoning (Sapure): roots of Calotropis and black pepper (3:1) are made into a paste and administered along with card or whey in two ways—3/4 parts of the preparation is administered orally twice a day and 1/4 parts of the preparation is applied on the area showing inflammation or swelling due to any kind of poisoning | 3 | Cow, bullock, buffalo, goat, sheep |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 192 | Calotropis procera (Aiton) W.T. Aiton SKM79 | Sodom apple | Apocynaceae | Bark | Body swelling due to cold: bark of C. procera, leaves of J. curcas, and fresh turmeric (C. longa) are made into a paste (2:2:1) and applied as a poultice on the affected area once a day for 5–7 days | 3 | Bullock |
| Jatropha curcas L. SKM373 | Physic nut | Euphorbiaceae | Leaf | ||||
| Curcuma longa L. | — | — | Rhizome | ||||
| 193 | Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) Tirveng. SKM681 | Mountain pomegranate | Rubiaceae | Root | Urinary tract infection with slight fever: 10 g of the root of C. spinosa is made into a paste and given with 9 grains of black pepper once a day for 7 days | 2 | Goat |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 194 | Causonis trifolia (L.) Mabb. and J.Wen | — | — | Whole plant | Swelling of the body due to cold (Jol-sannipat): whole plant of C. trifolia , C. reflexa, bark of T. arjuna (4:1:1) and sunned rice (Atop-chal) are made into a paste together, slightly heated, and then applied topically with the help of a brush made of palm-leaf base | 9 | Cow |
| Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. | — | — | Whole plant | ||||
| Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight and Arn. SKM129 | Arjun tree | Combretaceae | Bark | ||||
| 195 | Celastrus paniculatus Willd. SKM312 | Black Oil Plant | Celastraceae | Seed | Rheumatoid arthritis: seed oil of C. paniculatus and S. indicum are mixed in equal proportion and applied externally throughout the affected leg twice a day for at least 15 days | 3 | Cow |
| Sesamum indicum L. | — | — | Seed | ||||
| 196 | Cissus quadrangularis L. | — | — | Stem | Swelling wart: stem of C. quadrangularis, root bark of F. religiosa and bark of T. arjuna are taken in equal amounts and made into a paste and applied as a poultice on the affected area and tied tightly with cloth and left as it is for a minimum of 15 days | 3 | Buffalo |
| Ficus religiosa L. | — | — | Root | ||||
| Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight and Arn. | — | — | Bark | ||||
| 197 | Cissus quadrangularis L. | — | — | Stem | Helminthosis: 100 g of Cissus stem is made into a paste along with 9 grains of black pepper and fed once in the morning for 5–7 days | 2 | Buffalo |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 198 | Guilandina bonduc L. | — | — | Root | Retention of placenta: decoction is prepared from 250 g root of G. bonduc and 21 grains of black pepper and given orally twice a day | 4 | Cow |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 199 | Capparis zeylanica L. | — | — | Leaf | Mastitis: leaf of C. zeylanica (50 g) and 21 grains of black pepper are made into a paste together and given orally twice a day till the cure | 2 | Milch cow |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 200 | Chamaecrista mimosoides (L.) Greene SKM347 | Feather-leaved Cassia | Fabaceae | Root | Stomach pain: 5 g of root paste of Chamaecrista is given with nine grains of black pepper twice a day for 5–7 days | 2 | Goat |
| Piper nigrum L | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 201 | Tragia involucrata L. SKM75 | Indian stinging nettle | Euphorbiaceae | Root | Fever: the root of Tragia (50 g), fruit of B. anthelmintica (10 g), and rock salt (5 g) are made into a paste and fed twice a day for 3 days | 3 | Cow |
| Baccharoides anthelmintica (L.) Moench | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 202 | Chrysopogon zizanioides (L.) Roberty SKM536 | Vetiver grass | Poaceae | Root | Headache: mature root of D. stramonium is made into a paste along with the roots of C. zizanioides and C. rotundus (2:1:1), applied as poultice on head twice a day for 2-3 days. In severe cases, little amount of horn dust of spotted deer is added with this preparation and applied in the same way | 2 | Bullock |
| Cyperus rotundus L. SKM121 | Java grass | Cyperaceae | Root | ||||
| Datura stramonium L. | — | — | Root | ||||
| 203 | Cissampelos pareira L. | — | — | Root | Dog bite: water emulsion is prepared with root (10 g) paste and 21 grains of black pepper and given orally thrice a day for 2 days | 9 | Goat, sheep |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 204 | Cissampelos pareira L. | — | — | Leaf | Fever: 4–5 leaves are given along with nine grains of black pepper twice a day for 3 days | 2 | Calf |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 205 | Cissampelos pareira L. | — | — | Whole plant | Poisoning (Aasor): a paste is prepared from the whole plant of C. pareira (250 g), leaf of A. indica (5 g), and fresh rhizome of C. longa (5 g) and applied topically all over the body | 3 | Milch cow |
| Azadirachta indica A. Juss. | — | — | Leaf | ||||
| Curcuma longa L. | — | — | Rhizome | ||||
| 206 | Cocculus hirsutus (L.) W.Theob. | — | — | Leaf | Urinary incontinence: the leaf of C. hirsutus (100 g) is made into a paste along with a little bit of Zingiber and rock salt, given once in the morning for 10–15 days | 2 | Cow |
| Zingiber officinale Roscoe | — | — | Rhizome | ||||
| 207 | Cocculus hirsutus (L.) W.Theob. | — | — | Whole plant | Post-partum debility: an infusion is made from dried plants of C. hirsutus and dried bark of S. febrifuga (3:1) and given orally once a day for 15 days | 2 | Cow |
| Soymida febrifuga (Roxb.) A. Juss. | — | — | Bark | ||||
| 208 | Holarrhena pubescens Wall. ex G.Don | — | — | Seed | Bloat (Dhonrabai): 10 g seeds of Wrightia (Indrajob), rhizome of Curcuma (250 g), molasses (500 g), and potassium nitrate (5 g) are crushed into a paste together and administered twice a day for a few days; simultaneously lukewarm water is drenched | 2 | Bullock, buffalo |
| Curcuma longa L. | — | — | Rhizome | ||||
| 209 | Swertia chirayita (Roxb.) H.Karst. | — | — | Whole plant | Fever with ruminal atony: dried whole plant of S. chirayita (25–30 g), rhizome of Curcuma (50 g), roots of Tragia (5–10 g), black pepper (10 g), and potassium nitrate (5 g) are made into a paste together and administered twice a day till recovery | 2 | Buffalo |
| Curcuma longa L. | — | — | Rhizome | ||||
| Tragia involucrata L. ♥ | — | — | Root | ||||
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 210 | Madhuca longifolia (J.Koenig ex L.) J.F.Macbr. SKM187 | Mahua tree | Sapotaceae | Bark | Body swelling due to poisoning (Aasor): bark of M. longifolia and rhizome of C. longa (8:1) is made into a paste and applied both topically and orally at the same time of a day twice for 3 days | 7 | Bullock |
| Curcuma longa L. | — | — | Rhizome | ||||
| 211 | Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. ♥ SKM985 | Curry leaf tree | Rutaceae | Leaf | Drowsiness of small ruminants (Jhimuni): leaves of M. koenigii and fresh curcuma (4:1) are made into a paste and applied topically on the whole body for consecutive 7 days | 6 | Sheep, goat |
| Curcuma longa L. | — | — | Rhizome | ||||
| 212 | Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser | — | — | Leaf | Constipation: leaves of N. cadamba (2 kg) and fresh rhizome of C. longa (100 g) are made into a paste, and it is fed with molasses (250 g) as a laxative twice a day for 2 days | 7 | Cow |
| Curcuma longa L. | — | — | Rhizome | ||||
| 213 | Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser SKM24 | Burflower-tree | Rubiaceae | Leaf | Constipation: leaf of N. cadamba (1.5–2 kg), rhizome of Curcuma (250 g), seeds of Plantago (250 g), and mustard seed (10 g) are made into a paste and given once a day in case of constipation | 4 | Buffalo |
| Plantago ovata Forssk. | Psyllium | Plantaginaceae | Seed | ||||
| Curcuma longa L. | — | — | Rhizome | ||||
| Brassica nigra (L.) K. Koch | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 214 | Curcuma aromatica Salisb. ♥ SKM86 | Wild turmeric | Zingiberaceae | Rhizome | Food poisoning: rhizome of C. aromatica (10–15 g) is made into a paste along with 9–21 grains of black pepper and fed thrice a day for consecutive 2 days | 2 | Goat |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 215 | Rotheca serrata (L.) Steane & Mabb. ♠ SKM315 | Blue fountain bush | Lamiaceae | Root | Fever: one piece of root of R. serrata (5 cm of length), a little amount of ginger, and a teaspoon of ajwain are made into a paste and given orally twice a day for 3 days | 2 | Goat, sheep |
| Zingiber officinale Roscoe | — | — | Rhizome | ||||
| Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 216 | Clerodendrum indicum (L.) Kuntze SKM88 | Tubeflower | Lamiaceae | Stem | Snakebite: three pieces of the stem (5 cm of length) and 21 grains of black pepper are made into a paste and given orally as soon as possible | 3 | Cow |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 217 | Volkameria inermis L. | — | — | Leaf | Rheumatoid arthritis (Shimola rog): leaf of V. inermis (1 kg), 5 cloves of garlic, and 5 g of asafoetida (Go-hing) are made into a paste and applied on the affected area of the leg twice a day for 7–9 days | 2 | Cow |
| Allium sativum L. | — | — | Bulb | ||||
| Ferula assa-foetida L. | Asafoetida | Apiaceae | Gum | ||||
| 218 | Clerodendrum infortunatum L. | — | — | Root | General weakness: an infusion is prepared from dried powder of root of C. infortunatum and Soymeda bark (1:4) and given once a day for at least 15 days | 2 | Cow, buffalo |
| Soymida febrifuga (Roxb.) A. Juss. | — | — | Bark | ||||
| 219 | Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott | — | — | Corm | Stiffness of shoulder: bark of Litsea and corm of C. esculenta are made into a paste (1:1) and applied as a poultice on the affected area twice a day till the cure | 2 | Bullock, buffalo |
| Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C. B. Rob. | — | — | Bark | ||||
| 220 | Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. SKM122 | Bermuda grass | Poaceae | Whole plant | Dyspepsia of the calf: a bunch of C. dactylon and a little amount of ginger are made into a paste and fed with old molasses once a day for 15 days | 2 | Calf |
| Zingiber officinale Roscoe | — | — | Rhizome | ||||
| 221 | Datura stramonium L. | — | — | Root | Swelling of body due to poisoning (Sapure): root of Datura and black pepper (3:1) are made into a paste and administered along with card or whey in two ways; 3/4 parts of the preparation is administered orally twice a day and 1/4 parts of the preparation is applied on the area showing inflammation or swelling due to any kind of poisoning | 3 | Cow, goat, sheep |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 222 | Pleurolobus gangeticus (L.) J.St.-Hil. ex H.Ohashi & K.Ohashi ♥ | — | — | Whole plant | Bloody dysentery: 100–150 g of the plant along with 21 grains of black pepper is made into a paste and given once a day for 3 days | 11 | Cow |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 223 | Grona triflora (L.) H.Ohashi & K.Ohashi SKM197 | Three-flower tick-trefoil | Fabaceae | Root | Delayed onset of estrous cycle: the root of G. triflora is made into a paste and given with a tablespoon of concentrated juice of S. bengalense stem. This practice is repeated each morning for at least 15 days | 2 | Heifer |
| Tripidium bengalense (Retz.) H.Scholz SKM209 | Sweetcane | Poaceae | Stem | ||||
| 224 | Dillenia pentagyna Roxb. | — | — | Leaf | Ulcer in the intestine: leaves (5-6 pieces) are made into a paste along with 11 black pepper (P. nigrum) and fed once a day for 3 days | 2 | Heifer, goat, sheep |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 225 | Wattakaka volubilis (L.f.) Stapf. | — | — | Stem | Liver trouble: stem of W. volubilis (10 cm) made into a paste along with fresh turmeric (C. longa) and ajwain (T. ammi), given orally once a day for 5 days | 3 | Cow, bullock |
| Curcuma longa L. | — | — | Rhizome | ||||
| Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 226 | Wattakaka volubilis (L.f.) Stapf. | — | — | Leaf | Mastitis: 4-5 pieces of leaves of W. volubilis are made into a paste along with little fresh turmeric (C. longa), applied as poultice once a day till cured | 3 | Milch buffalo |
| Curcuma longa L. | — | — | Rhizome | ||||
| 227 | Wattakaka volubilis (L.f.) Stapf. | — | — | Stem | Haematuria: all the four parts, such as stem of W. volubilis, fresh rhizome of C. longa, fruits of T. ammi, and C. sativum seed (4:1:1:1), are made into a paste and given orally | 2 | Cattle |
| Curcuma longa L. | — | — | Rhizome | ||||
| Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| Coriandrum sativum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 228 | Drosera burmannii Vahl ♥ SKM324 | Tropical sundew | Droseraceae | Whole plant | Infectious diseases: one or two freshly collected Drosera plants are fed wrapping with bamboo leaves thrice a week during the onset of certain infectious diseases | 3 | Cow, buffalo |
| Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss. | — | — | Leaf | ||||
| 229 | Echinops echinatus Roxb. | — | — | Roots | Stomachache: root of E. echinatus and whole plant of S. dulcis (2:1) is made into a paste, mixed with lukewarm water, and given orally once in the morning for 15 days | 5 | Buffalo |
| Scoparia dulcis L. | — | — | Whole plant | ||||
| 230 | Leucas cephalotes (Roth) Spreng. SKM15 | Spider wort | Lamiaceae | Shoot | Rhinorrhoea (Sonra rog): freshly collected branches of both the plant Leucas and Eclipta are taken in equal amount, made shade dry, and powdered, then mixed with mustard oil and vermilion. 2 spoonfuls of this preparation is administered in each nasal opening twice a day | 4 | Cow |
| Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. SKM13 | False daisy | Asteraceae | Shoot | ||||
| 231 | Glochidion multiloculare (Rottler ex Willd.) Voigt SKM1123 | Phyllanthaceae | Bark | Stiffness of shoulder: barks of G. multiloculare and M. longifolia (2:1) are made into a paste and applied as a poultice on the affected shoulder thrice a day for 3-4 days | 5 | Bullock, buffalo | |
| Madhuca longifolia (J.Koenig ex L.) J.F.Macbr. | — | — | Bark | ||||
| 232 | Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R.Br. SKM827 | Indian sarsaparilla | Apocynaceae | Root | Sore in the mouth: the root of H. indicus is made into a paste along with C. longa and smeared on the tongue and other affected areas of the oral cavity | 3 | Cow |
| Curcuma longa L. | — | — | Rhizome | ||||
| 233 | Leea asiatica (L.) Ridsdale ♥ SKM561 | Asiatic Leea | Vitaceae | Root | Food poisoning: 20–25 g of the root is made into a paste with 21 grains of black pepper and given orally once a day for 3 days | 2 | Goat |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 234 | Vicia lens (L.) Coss. & Germ. | Lentil | Fabaceae | Seed | Mastitis: seeds of V. lens are made into a paste along with C. longa and applied as a poultice on the painful udder thrice a day till cured | 2 | Milch cow |
| Curcuma longa L. | — | — | Rhizome | ||||
| 235 | Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R.Br. | — | — | Seed | Infertility: 5 g seeds of L. nepetifolia are fed, wrapping with bamboo leaves once a day for regularizing the estrous cycle | 3 | Buffalo |
| Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss. | — | — | Leaf | ||||
| 236 | Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw. ♣ SKM180 | Maidenhair creeper | Schizaeaceae | Root | Fever: little amount of roots is made into a paste along with 9 grains of black pepper and fed once a day for 3–5 days | 2 | Goat |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 237 | Xenostegia tridentata (L.) D.F.Austin & Staples SKM14 | African morningvine | Convolvulaceae | Whole plant | Stomachache: entire X. tridentata plant (15–20 g) and 21 grains of black pepper are made into a paste and given orally once a day in the morning for 3 days | 2 | Goat |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 238 | Nerium oleander L. | — | — | Root | Swelling of the body due to poisonous bite (Sapure): the root of Nerium and black pepper (3:1) are made into a paste and administered, mixing with card or whey in two ways—3/4 parts of the preparation are administered orally twice a day and 1/4 parts of the preparation are applied on the area showing inflammation due to any kind of poisoning | 3 | Cow |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 239 | Ochna obtusata DC. SKM816 | Ramdhan Champa | Ochnaceae | Root | High fever: root of O. obtusata (10–15 g) is made into a paste along with a little amount of ginger and fed twice a day till cured | 5 | Bullock |
| Zingiber officinale Roscoe | — | — | Rhizome | ||||
| 240 | Phyllodium pulchellum (L.) Desv. ♠ SKM460 | Showy Desmodium | Fabaceae | Bark | Post parturition bleeding: stem bark of D. pulchellum and little amount of C. longa are made into a paste and given orally twice a day | 2 | Cow |
| Curcuma longa L. | — | — | Rhizome | ||||
| 241 | Zingiber officinale Roscoe | — | — | Rhizome | Post-partum weakness: Preparation 1: rhizome of Z. zerumbet and Z. officinale and fruit of Piper longum are taken in equal amounts, made into powder separately, and then mixed. Preparation 2: dried rhizomatous root of P. cubeba is also made into powder separately. A minimum of 5 g of powder from the preparation 1 and 5–8 g from preparation 2 are taken and mixed well, then administered orally twice a day for a few days | 2 | Cow |
| Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Roscoe ex Sm | Pinecone ginger | Zingiberaceae | Rhizome | ||||
| Piper longum L. | Long pepper | Piperaceae | Fruit | ||||
| Piper cubeba L. f. ♠ | — | — | Root | ||||
| 242 | Plumbago zeylanica L. SKM671 | Ceylon leadwort | Plumbaginaceae | Root | Loose motion: root of P. zeylanica (8–10 g), very little amount of fresh rhizome of C. longa, and 9 grains of black pepper are made into a paste and given orally twice a day till cure | 3 | Goat, sheep |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| Curcuma longa L. | — | — | Rhizome | ||||
| 243 | Premna herbacea Roxb. SKM261 | Stemless premna | Lamiaceae | Root | Bloat: 5 g of root and 21 grains of black pepper are made into a paste and given orally once in the evening for 3–5 days | 3 | Goat |
| Piper nigrum L | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 244 | Polygala crotalarioides Buch.-Ham. ex DC. SKM227 | Indian Milkwort | Polygalaceae | Root | Dysentery: root of one plant is made into a paste along with 9 grains of black pepper; 1/3rd of it is given at a time thrice a day in an interval of one hour | 5 | Goat, sheep |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 245 | Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz SKM617 | Indian snakeroot | Apocynaceae | Root | Poisonous bite: two pieces of roots (3–5 cm) and 21 grains of black pepper are made into a paste with holly water and fed instantly | 3 | Cow, buffalo |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 246 | Ruellia tuberosa L. SKM316 | Meadow Weed | Acanthaceae | Root | Blood dysentery: 4-5 pieces of roots (5–7 cm in length) of R. tuberosa are made into a paste along with 21 grains of black pepper and given twice a day for 3 days | 3 | Cow |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 247 | Ruellia prostrata Poir. SKM417 | Bell Weed | Acanthaceae | Whole plant | Swelling of the body due to poisonous effect: freshly collected whole plant (200–250 g) is chopped finely and fed with 21 grains of black pepper | 2 | Cow |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 248 | Scoparia dulcis L. ♥ | — | — | Whole plant | Retention of placenta: two or three plants of S. dulcis are made into a paste along with one tender shoot of Z. jujuba, 5 g of ajwain (T. ammi), and 5 gm of turmeric (C. longa) and given orally once a day in the morning for 3 consecutive days | 2 | Cow, buffalo |
| Ziziphus jujuba Mill. ♣ SKM444 | Chinese jujube | Rhamnaceae | Shoot | ||||
| Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| Curcuma longa L. | — | — | Rhizome | ||||
| 249 | Scoparia dulcis L. ♥ | — | — | Whole plant | Fever: a bunch of dried plants of S. dulcis and stem of S. glaucophyllum are taken in a 3:1 ratio and made into a paste with black pepper (3–21 grains). The whole preparation is fed at a time once a day for 3 consecutive days | 3 | Cow |
| Solanum glaucophyllum Desf. | — | — | Stem | ||||
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 250 | Shorea robusta Gaertn. SKM81 | Sal tree | Dipterocarpaceae | Bark | Diarrhea: 250 g of the bark of S. robusta is made into a paste with 21 grains of black pepper and given orally once a day till cure | 2 | Cow |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 251 | Sida cordifolia L. ♥ SKM190 | Heart-leaf Sida | Malvaceae | Stem | Loose motion: stem of S. cordifolia is made into a paste along with cumin seed (C. cyminum) soaked water and administered orally once a day for consecutive 3 mornings | 7 | Calf, goat, sheep |
| Cuminum cyminum L. | Cumin | Apiaceae | Seed | ||||
| 252 | Sida rhombifolia L. SKM294 | Arrowleaf sida | Malvaceae | Root | Fever: a paste is made with 10–15 g of S. rhombifolia root and 9 grains of black pepper and fed along with mustard cake | 8 | Calf, goat, sheep |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 253 | Smilax ovalifolia Roxb. ex D.Don | — | — | Root | Bloody dysentery: root paste (5–10 g) is administered with 9–21 pieces of black pepper (according to age) once a day for 3 days | 5 | Cow |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 254 | Spondias pinnata (L. f.) Kurz SKM307 | Hog plum | Anacardiaceae | Bark | Fever: 100 g of bark of S. pinnata and 10–15 g of stem of S. glaucophyllum are ground along with black pepper (3–21) and given orally twice a day for 3 days | 2 | Bullock |
| Solanum glaucophyllum Desf. | — | — | Stem | ||||
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 255 | Swertia chirayita (Roxb.) H.Karst. | — | — | Whole plant | Fever: dried plant of S. chirayita (5–8 g), root of T. involucrata (5-6 pieces), fruit of black pepper (for goat, 5–15 pieces; for cow, 9–45 pieces; for buffalo, 15–61 pieces). Fixed amounts of all these three plant parts are made into a paste and given twice (morning and evening) a day till cure | 4 | Buffalo, goat |
| Tragia involucrata L. | — | — | Root | ||||
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 256 | Tacca leontopetaloides (L.) Kuntze ♠ SKM503 | Indian Arrow Root | Dioscoreaceae | Tuber | Diarrhea: tuber (10–15) is made into a paste with 9–11 grains of black pepper and given orally once a day for 3 days | 3 | Buffalo |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 257 | Terminalia chebula Retz. | Myrobalan | Combretaceae | Fruit | Liver trouble with sore in intestine: 5-6 mature fruits of T. chebula, 5 g fresh rhizome of C. longa, and 9–21 grains of black pepper are made into a paste with holly water and fed once a day for 7 days | 3 | Bullock |
| Curcuma longa L. | — | — | Rhizome | ||||
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 258 | Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. | — | — | Stem | Fever with breathing trouble: stem of T. sinensis and rhizome of Z. officinale are made into a paste in a 5:1 ratio and given orally once a day for 9–11 days | 3 | Bullock |
| Zingiber officinale Roscoe | — | — | Rhizome | ||||
| 259 | Tragia involucrata L. | — | — | Root | Fever: roots of Tragia and fruits of Capsicum or black pepper are crushed together to make a paste and given with cattle feed once or twice a day (as per cow's age) for 2-3 days. Dose: for adult cow, root of Tragia (30–35 cm), Capsicum (5-6 pieces), or Piper (10–12 pieces) | 4 | Cow, bullock, buffalo |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| Capsicum annuum L. SKM127 | Chili | Solanaceae | Fruit | ||||
| 260 | Ventilago denticulata Willd. SKM106 | Red creeper | Rhamnaceae | Shoot | Diarrhea: 3-4 tender shoots (where leaf number will be 5) are made into a paste along with black pepper and given orally once in the morning for 3 consecutive days | 3 | Bullock |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 261 | Zingiber officinale Roscoe | — | — | Rhizome | Bloat (Dhonrabai): rhizome of Zingiber (25 g), fruits of Trachyspermum (25 g), salt (25 g), and molasses (25 g) are ground into paste, and then administered twice a day for 2-3 days | 3 | Cow |
| Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 262 | Zingiber officinale Roscoe | — | — | Rhizome | Gut erosion, pulmonary congestion, foot rot, and any kind of poisoning of the cattle: rhizomes of Z. officinale and Z. zerumbet are made into a paste along with the fruits of P. longum in a 2:1:1 ratio and administered orally twice a day for 5–7 days | 2 | Cow, buffalo |
| Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Roscoe ex Sm. ♠ | — | — | Rhizome | ||||
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| 263 | Ziziphus jujuba Mill. | — | — | Shoot | Diarrhea: three pieces of tender shoots of Z. jujuba are made into a paste along with 9–21 grains of black pepper (P. nigrum) and mixed with water; oral: twice for 3 days | 9 | Cow |
| Piper nigrum L. | — | — | Fruit | ||||
| C | Magico-religious belief (n = 12) | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| 264 | Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet ♣ SKM01 | Monkey bush | Malvaceae | Root | Watering of eyes: a small piece of root is touched on the affected eye thrice at a time, then that root piece is touched on the ground and is dipped in a certain site of a nearby pond situated corresponding to the side (left/right) of the affected eye. It is performed on three consecutive Sundays of a month. A regular compress of steam vapor is given simultaneously | 4 | Cow |
| 265 | Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet | — | — | Stem | Unusual aggressiveness (during milking): a dried stem is tied and hung around the neck with a black thread | 4 | Milch cow |
| 266 | Adiantum philippense subsp. philippense ♠ | — | — | Rhizome | Sudden decrease in milk production: a little bunch of dried rhizomatous root is tied around the neck with a red thread | 2 | Milch cow |
| 267 | Dioscorea bulbifera L. | — | — | Bulbil | Weakness: a bulbil is hung on the neck with a piece of black thread | 2 | Cow, buffalo |
| 268 | Euphorbia antiquorum L. | — | — | Latex | Infectious disease: a round mark is drawn with freshly collected latex on the right side of the head | 2 | Large bovine animal |
| 269 | Martynia annua L. | — | — | Fruit | Weakness: three dried fruits are hung with the black thread from the neck of cattle to combat evil forces | 2 | Gravid cow |
| 270 | Musa paradisiaca L. | — | — | Leaf | Dysentery: apical part of a tender leaf is wrapped with a piece of cloth smeared with fresh curcuma paste and tied on any of the back legs with black colored ribbon | 2 | Gravid cow |
| 271 | Neptunia prostrata (Lam.) Baill. SKM551 | Water Mimosa | Fabaceae | Stem | Poisonous bite (snake): three dried stems of equal size are tied firmly near the site of the poisonous bite | 2 | Cow, bullock |
| 272 | Streblus asper Lour. SKM203 | Siamese rough bush | Moraceae | Leaf | Opacity of cornea: 21 leaves are touched on the affected eye and then dipped in a certain site of a nearby pond | 2 | Cow |
| 273 | Semecarpus anacardium L.f. | — | — | Latex | Lameness in the hind leg (Shir-taan): latex come out of a freshly collected fruit is touched at the base of the hoof of the front legs, horns, and tail | 5 | Bullock |
| 274 | Swietenia macrophylla King. SKM624 | Broad-leafed Mahogany | Meliaceae | Fruit | Miscarriage: for the safety of the fetus and to prevent miscarriage, dried fruit of Swietenia is tied around the neck of the pregnant cow with a red ribbon | 2 | Gravid buffalo |
| 275 | Tragia involucrata L. | — | — | Root | Maggot infested wounds (between hooves and in genital openings): a piece of root is tied with red colored thread and hung around the neck of affected cattle. This practice is done only on Sunday and Tuesday of the week | 7 | Cow |
3.3 Quantitative Analysis of the Recorded Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Data
A total of 1,234 citations were made by the 132 participants. All the recorded 79 health issues are grouped into 20 disease categories based on the emic perception of the participants as consulted during focus group discussion.
Fic value was determined for all the 20 diseases categories, ranging from 0.4 to 0.83 (Table 2). Among the recorded disease categories, six categories such as skeletal disorders, helminthiasis, urinary disorders, poisonous effect, retention of milk, and enteric diseases showed very high Fic value (≥0.8); that is, the value is significantly closer to 1, which means there is a greater consensus among the participants. Eleven disease categories were found to have moderate Fic value (≥0.6 to ˂0.8). Moreover, three disease categories such as rheumatic disorder (0.57), ophthalmic disorder (0.53), and general health weakness (0.4), have scored low Fic value (<0.6).
TABLE 2.
Factor for informant’s consensus (Fic) value of the 20 disease categories and the most reliable ethnoveterinary medicinal plants (EVMPs) recorded in each disease category.
| Sl. No. | Disease category | Number of taxa (nt) | Number of use report (nur) | Fic value | EVMPs with fidelity level (FL%) and use-mention (UM) factor |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Skeletal disorder | 08 | 41 | 0.83 | Cissus quadrangularis L. (90.48; UM = 19) |
| 2 | Helminthiasis | 07 | 34 | 0.82 | Pueraria tuberosa (Willd.) DC. (100; UM = 17) |
| 3 | Enteric diseases | 29 | 151 | 0.81 | Abrus precatorius L. (84.21; UM = 16), Vachellia nilotica subsp. indica (Benth.) Kyal. & Boatwr. (86.67; UM = 13) |
| 4 | Poisonous effect | 23 | 119 | 0.81 | Aristolochia indica L. (94.44; UM = 17), Causonis trifolia (L.) Mabb. & J.Wen (91.67; UM = 11) |
| 5 | Urinary disorders | 11 | 54 | 0.81 | Wattakaka volubilis (L.f.) Stapf. (81.82; UM = 09) |
| 6 | Disorders in milk production | 14 | 65 | 0.8 | Amaranthus spinosus L. (64.71; UM = 11) |
| 7 | Fever and related problems | 21 | 94 | 0.78 | Achyranthes aspera L. (95.65; UM = 22), Tragia involucrata L. (81.82; UM = 09) |
| 8 | Gastrointestinal disorders | 46 | 199 | 0.78 | Curcuma longa L. (91.67; UM = 22) |
| 9 | Ectoparasite | 09 | 36 | 0.77 | Annona squamosa L. (100; UM = 11) |
| 10 | Infectious disease | 13 | 51 | 0.76 | Achyranthes aspera L. (39.13; UM = 09) |
| 11 | Cold, cough, and related problems | 17 | 62 | 0.74 | Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb. (100; UM = 11) |
| 12 | Cuts and wounds | 18 | 67 | 0.74 | Allium sativum L. (100; UM = 09) |
| 13 | Muscular disorders | 04 | 12 | 0.73 | Agave americana L. (55.56; UM = 05) |
| 14 | Magico-religious cure | 11 | 37 | 0.72 | Tragia involucrata L. (63.64; UM = 07) |
| 15 | Mastitis | 13 | 36 | 0.66 | Nigella sativa L. (100; UM = 07) |
| 16 | Reproductive health disorders | 18 | 49 | 0.65 | Gloriosa superba L. (100; UM = 07) |
| 17 | Dermatological disorder | 22 | 53 | 0.6 | Agave americana L. (55.56; UM = 0.5) |
| 18 | Rheumatic disorder | 10 | 22 | 0.57 | Calotropis gigantea (L.) W.T.Aiton (63.63; UM = 07) |
| 19 | Ophthalmic disorder | 12 | 26 | 0.56 | Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt (83.33; UM = 05) |
| 20 | General weakness | 16 | 26 | 0.4 | Pueraria tuberosa (Wild.) DC. (41.18; UM = 17) |
The fidelity level or FL values have been determined for all the recorded species used in those 20 diseases categories. Among the recorded plant species, only 23 EVM plants have been identified here as the most important species in the respective disease condition according to their FL value (Table 2).
Further, 68 EVMPs have been considered, which were cited by at least 5% of the participants (FC ≤ 7) for further ranking after comparing the numerical values of frequency of citation (FC), use reports (UR), and the number of uses (NU) and based on the score of CV index (Table 3). After careful comparison of all the values estimated for the 68 plant species, nine species have been considered as culturally most valuable (CV ≥ 0.0025 and frequency of citation ≥20) in the northern laterite region of West Bengal. Those nine plants are Curcuma longa L., Achyranthes aspera L., Abrus precatorius L., Amaranthus spinosus L., Azadirachta indica A.Juss., Cissus quadrangularis L., Pueraria tuberosa (Willd.) DC., Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees, and Wattakaka volubilis (L.f.) Stapf.
TABLE 3.
Ranking of the useful EVMPs (n = 68) on the basis of the cultural value (CV) index.
| EVM plants | Basic values | Score of CV index | Ranking | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| FC (frequency of citation) | UR (number of use reports) | NU (number of uses) | |||
| Curcuma longa L. | 44 | 24 | 13 | 0.013786 | 1 |
| Achyranthes aspera L. | 53 | 23 | 7 | 0.011344 | 2 |
| Abrus precatorius L. | 40 | 19 | 4 | 0.006969 | 3 |
| Amaranthus spinosus L. | 25 | 17 | 5 | 0.006095 | 4 |
| Azadirachta indica A.Juss. | 20 | 16 | 5 | 0.004598 | 5 |
| Cissus quadrangularis L. | 24 | 21 | 3 | 0.004340 | 6 |
| Pueraria tuberosa (Willd.) DC. | 27 | 17 | 4 | 0.003966 | 7 |
| Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees | 22 | 13 | 4 | 0.003253 | 8 |
| Wattakaka volubilis (L.f.) Stapf. | 20 | 11 | 5 | 0.002523 | 9 |
| Vachellia nilotica subsp. indica (Benth.) Kyal. & Boatwr. | 19 | 15 | 3 | 0.002445 | 10 |
| Aristolochia indica L. | 20 | 18 | 2 | 0.002067 | 11 |
| Scoparia dulcis L. | 16 | 11 | 5 | 0.002025 | 12 |
| Tragia involucrata L. | 20 | 11 | 5 | 0.001693 | 13 |
| Pleurolobus gangeticus (L.) J.St.-Hil. ex H.Ohashi & K.Ohashi | 20 | 13 | 2 | 0.001479 | 14 |
| Causonis trifolia (L.) Mabb. & J.Wen | 20 | 12 | 2 | 0.001374 | 15 |
| Calotropis gigantea (L.) W.T.Aiton | 13 | 11 | 3 | 0.001232 | 16 |
| Datura stramonium L. | 15 | 9 | 3 | 0.001162 | 17 |
| Agave americana L. | 13 | 9 | 3 | 0.001009 | 18 |
| Musa paradisiaca L. | 14 | 8 | 3 | 0.000960 | 19 |
| Cissampelos pareira L. | 21 | 12 | 4 | 0.000891 | 20 |
| Soymida febrifuga (Roxb.) A. Juss. | 14 | 7 | 4 | 0.000858 | 21 |
| Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. | 13 | 11 | 2 | 0.000813 | 22 |
| Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C. B. Rob. | 12 | 6 | 5 | 0.00081 | 23 |
| Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. | 10 | 9 | 3 | 0.000775 | 24 |
| Madhuca longifolia (J.Koenig ex L.) J.F.Macbr. | 12 | 11 | 2 | 0.000755 | 25 |
| Asparagus racemosus Willd. | 13 | 9 | 2 | 0.000666 | 26 |
| Alangium salviifolium (L.f.) Wangerin | 8 | 7 | 4 | 0.000636 | 27 |
| Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. | 12 | 9 | 2 | 0.000618 | 28 |
| Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & Arn. | 12 | 9 | 2 | 0.000618 | 29 |
| Smilax ovalifolia Roxb. ex D.Don | 10 | 7 | 3 | 0.000604 | 30 |
| Ziziphus jujuba Mill. | 11 | 9 | 2 | 0.000564 | 31 |
| Echinops echinatus Roxb. | 9 | 7 | 3 | 0.000540 | 32 |
| Zingiber officinale Roscoe | 7 | 5 | 6 | 0.000503 | 33 |
| Ficus benghalensis L. | 9 | 9 | 2 | 0.000462 | 34 |
| Swertia chirayita (Roxb.) H.Karst. | 12 | 8 | 4 | 0.000457 | 35 |
| Helicteres isora L. | 10 | 7 | 2 | 0.000402 | 36 |
| Semecarpus anacardium L.f. | 8 | 8 | 2 | 0.000372 | 37 |
| Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet | 8 | 7 | 2 | 0.000360 | 38 |
| Clerodendrum infortunatum L. | 9 | 7 | 2 | 0.000360 | 39 |
| Gloriosa superba L. | 9 | 7 | 2 | 0.000360 | 40 |
| Annona squamosa L. | 11 | 11 | 1 | 0.000344 | 41 |
| Carica papaya L. | 11 | 11 | 1 | 0.000344 | 42 |
| Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb. | 11 | 11 | 1 | 0.000344 | 43 |
| Casearia tomentosa Roxb. | 8 | 7 | 3 | 0.000318 | 44 |
| Sesamum indicum L. | 9 | 6 | 2 | 0.000306 | 45 |
| Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser | 11 | 9 | 2 | 0.000282 | 46 |
| Barleria prionitis L. | 8 | 6 | 2 | 0.000274 | 47 |
| Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt | 8 | 6 | 2 | 0.000274 | 48 |
| Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. | 8 | 6 | 2 | 0.000274 | 49 |
| Guilandina bonduc L. | 7 | 6 | 2 | 0.000238 | 50 |
| Allium sativum L. | 9 | 9 | 1 | 0.000231 | 51 |
| Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss. | 9 | 9 | 1 | 0.000231 | 52 |
| Ziziphus nummularia (Burm.f.) Wight & Arn. | 9 | 9 | 1 | 0.000231 | 53 |
| Coriandrum sativum L. | 7 | 5 | 2 | 0.000201 | 54 |
| Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers. | 8 | 8 | 2 | 0.000183 | 55 |
| Chenopodium album L. | 8 | 8 | 1 | 0.000183 | 56 |
| Sida rhombifolia L. | 8 | 8 | 1 | 0.000183 | 57 |
| Senegalia catechu (L.f.) P.J.H.Hurter & Mabb. | 9 | 7 | 2 | 0.000140 | 58 |
| Cajanus scarabaeoides (L.) Thouars | 7 | 7 | 1 | 0.000140 | 59 |
| Enydra fluctuans DC. | 7 | 7 | 1 | 0.000140 | 60 |
| Strobilanthes hirta (Vahl) Blume | 7 | 7 | 1 | 0.000140 | 61 |
| Linum usitatissimum L. | 7 | 7 | 1 | 0.000140 | 62 |
| Luffa aegyptiaca Mill. | 7 | 7 | 1 | 0.000140 | 63 |
| Mimosa pudica L. | 7 | 7 | 1 | 0.000140 | 64 |
| Nigella sativa L. | 7 | 7 | 1 | 0.000140 | 65 |
| Sida cordifolia L. | 7 | 7 | 1 | 0.000140 | 66 |
| Solanum virginianum L. | 9 | 5 | 2 | 0.000129 | 67 |
| Solanum glaucophyllum Desf. | 8 | 5 | 3 | 0.000072 | 68 |
The Spearman rank-order Correlation analysis has been performed taking the cultural value (CV) index and three basic values of frequency of citation (FC), use report (UR), and use diversity (NU) as variables to check the dependency of one upon another (Table 4). The result expressed very significant correlations among all the variables at p < 0.05. The analysis highlighted that the CV index is highly dependent on the value of FC and UR (correlation coefficient > 0.9, which is near to 1). Therefore, the versatile uses of a plant species and its familiarity among the participants of a particular area significantly influence the CV index, which reflects the overall importance of the plant species in the culture.
TABLE 4.
Spearman rank-order correlations among the variables.
| FC | UR | NU | CV | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| FC | — | 0.98 | 0.631 | 0.967 |
| UR | — | — | 0.731 | 0.982 |
| NU | — | — | — | 0.75 |
| CV | — | — | — | — |
Analysis of the descriptive statistics has revealed that the values of mean (M) and standard deviation are very low in the CV index (M = 0.00044, SD = 0.00147), which indicates the accuracy of estimating the overall cultural importance of a species by this index.
Ten species out of 232 recorded plant species have frequently been used as minor ingredients in 110 different polyherbal preparations along with their respective principal ingredients. Those 10 species are Piper nigrum L., Curcuma longa L., Zingiber officinale Roscoe, Piper longum L., Nigella sativa L., Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague, Cuminum cyminum L., Piper cubeba L.f., Ferula assa-foetida L., and Allium sativum L. Ranking of preferred species has been made on the basis of scores given to the species considering the use-preference of the ten key participants. The list of most preferred herbal ingredients is presented in Table 5. Piper nigrum L. was ranked in the first position with the highest score of 86 out of 100, which revealed that the fruit of this plant is the most preferred ingredient used in polyherbal preparations by the participants of the studied area. The popularity of this plant is assumed easily by observing the value of frequency of citation (FC = 62) and use value (UV = 0.462), which are the highest among the values of these two parameters for all the recorded medicinal species in the studied area.
TABLE 5.
Preference ranking exercise with 10 plant species used as additional ingredients in the polyherbal ethnoveterinary medicines. Here 10 key participants labeled from A to J (average age = 65 ± 10 years).
| Plants used as additional ingredient | No. of citation/use mention | Use value (UV) | Preference ranking score given by the 10 key participants | Rank order | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | Total score | ||||
| Piper nigrum L. | 61 | 0.462 | 9 | 10 | 7 | 9 | 9 | 8 | 8 | 9 | 7 | 10 | 86 | 1 |
| Curcuma longa L. | 42 | 0.318 | 7 | 8 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 6 | 3 | 7 | 5 | 7 | 61 | 2 |
| Zingiber officinale Roscoe | 16 | 0.121 | 5 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 2 | 5 | 3 | 5 | 35 | 3 |
| Piper longum L. | 4 | 0.03 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 20 | 4 |
| Nigella sativa L. | 21 | 0.159 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 18 | 5 |
| Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague | 21 | 0.159 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 16 | 6 |
| Cuminum cyminum L. | 7 | 0.053 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 14 | 7 |
| Piper cubeba L. f. | 2 | 0.015 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 2 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 13 | 8 |
| Ferula assa-foetida L. | 2 | 0.015 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 9 | 9 |
| Allium sativum L. | 2 | 0.015 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 8 | 10 |
A total of 68 participants from the Birbhum district and 64 from the Burdwan district participated in the present study. The knowledge similarity between the participants of these two adjacent districts of the studied area has been analyzed employing the Jaccard index (JI). Among the recorded 232 EVMPs, uses of 139 plants were known to the participants from the Burdwan district, and uses of 202 plants were recorded from the participants of the Birbhum district. It has also been observed that uses of 108 EVMPs are common for both districts. The result of JI revealed that, across the 232 plant species, knowledge similarity reaches up to 46.35%, which is quite high as expected because both the districts are adjoining to each other and share similar environmental conditions, ethnic compositions, cultural values, and forest types. Another possible cause for such a high percentage of knowledge similarity is the cross-cultural exchange of EVM knowledge among the inhabitants of these two neighboring districts.
4. Discussion
4.1 Is Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Knowledge Depends on the Informant’s Age, Gender, Education, and Knowledge Gathering Pattern?
The involvement of participants indicates gender biases in the present study. However, most of the earlier workers have also experienced a similar type of a male dominating informant composition in their ethnomedicinal explorations carried out in different parts of the world (Hassan et al., 2017; Aziz et al., 2018). In the studied area, the role of women was found restricted mainly in assisting livestock rearing and dairying. Male participants of the study area have much more knowledge about traditional livestock healthcare than the female participants.
The expertise in folk therapy does not depend on the formal education and literacy of the participants but on their keen observation, deep interest, and analytical attitude toward traditional knowledge. Dissemination and gathering of the knowledge occur verbally, and the proficiency of an informant depends on their perception of knowledge and accuracy of practicing the same. In many cases, it has been noticed that the persons with no formal education are much more knowledgeable about folk therapy than the literate ones (Hayta et al., 2014; Umair et al., 2017).
Ninety-one participants interviewed were above 50 years with a minimum of 25 years of experience in livestock healthcare management. They have contributed the maximum number of information (281 formulations, 87%) about the uses of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants. The experience is increased by acquiring knowledge from different sources with an increase in age (Ayantunde et al., 2008). A similar type of scenario has been noticed in many of the ethnobotanical studies carried out earlier by other workers (Piluzza et al., 2015; Bullitta et al., 2018). It is a serious concern that the younger generation of the indigenous community of the northern laterite region of West Bengal is less interested in their age-old therapeutic practices and the traditional knowledge. The gradual inclination toward modern lifestyle, growing faith in allopathic medicine, modern education, and several other cultural changes within the traditional community profoundly influence the younger generation to throw away their forefathers’ culture, which put the age-old knowledge system on the verge of extinction (Cox, 2000).
In the present investigation, the rate of vertical transmission of knowledge is quite higher than the horizontal and oblique ones. In traditional societies, there is a common belief that the religious trust in medicine and its secrecy maintains the purity and supremacy of folk remedies (Giday et al., 2009). Such a kind of social belief restricts the knowledge transmission mainly within the family members. It is identified as one of the main causes of the highest percentage of vertical transmission of ethnomedicinal knowledge in the study area.
4.2 Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plant Resource and Knowledge Richness
Recorded 232 EVMPs extend the previously documented EVMPs list to 315 in the state of West Bengal, which indicates the richness of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants and its associated traditional veterinary knowledge among the local people in the study area (Jain and Dey, 1966; Pal, 1980; Pal, 1981; Mukherjee and Namahata, 1988; Pal, 1992; Ghosh, 1999; Ghosh, 2002; Ghosh, 2003; Bandyopadhyay and Mukherjee, 2005; Mitra and Mukherjee, 2007; Ghosh, 2008; Das and Tripathi, 2009; Rahaman et al., 2009; Dey and De, 2010; Pandit, 2010; Saha et al., 2010; Ghosh, 2011; Saha et al., 2014). Besides West Bengal, a total number of EVMPs has been estimated from the other parts of India. From the state of Gujarat, 265 plant species of veterinary importance were documented a few years back (Katewa et al., 2010). A total of 294 EVMPs have been reported from the states of North-East India (Sharma, 2012). In a recent review, about 449 EVMPs have been reported from the Indo-Gangetic region (Sikarwar, 2017). It is interesting to mention that, among the total number of veterinary plant taxa recorded from the Indo-Gangetic part of India, 129 EVMPs were common in the present study.
In many ethnobotanical studies, the family Fabaceae has been identified as the richest in medicinal flora among the plant families (Leonti et al., 2003; Molares and Ladio, 2009). A variety of biologically active phyto-constituents from different biochemical groups, such as tannins, flavonoids, alkaloids, and terpenes, have so far been reported from different medicinal species of this family, which largely influence their effective use in global folk medicine (Leonti et al., 2002). In the present study, the medicinal use of the highest number of leguminous species also conforms to the diversified therapeutic potentialities of this plant family Fabaceae.
Among the recorded plant taxa, most species are of herbaceous type (43%). The use of the herbs in the highest number in remedy preparation is their abundant growth and easy availability in the locality. It is a fact that humans would prefer to search for food and medicinal plants, which are most abundant, easy to access, and available all around the year (Albuquerque et al., 2005). For these reasons, herbaceous plants have occupied a considerable percentage among the medicinal plants used in almost all the traditional systems of medicine including ethnomedicine in the world (Disler et al., 2014; Eshetu et al., 2015; Parthiban et al., 2016).
Folk medicinal practices are based mainly on wild-growing plants, and this tradition of using local wild plants is still enduring in most ethnic cultures. The present investigation has also witnessed that most of the EVM species (86.15% of the total recorded species) were collected from wild sources, confirming the local people’s dependence on mostly the plants growing in the wild.
Herein, the recorded main plant parts used for remedy preparation are the underground parts. Most of the ethnobotanical explorations carried out in different parts of the world exhibited that roots and underground parts of the plants are used as medicine in the highest or considerable percentage (Mall, 2009; Agrawal, 2013). Roots and other underground parts have been identified as the major sites where many of the bioactive compounds are synthesized and accumulated, further highlighting the scientific basis of these folk herbal practices of using underground parts of the plants (Flores and Flores, 1997; Bais et al., 2001). Most of the time, it has been informed that the collection of underground parts destroys the plant. Such an unsustainable collection practice resulted in the reduction or depletion of the local phytodiversity (Kimondo et al., 2015). Therefore, excessive collection of underground plant parts can cause a threatful impact on local biodiversity.
The present study witnessed the use of a significant percentage (36% of total remedies recorded) of polyherbal recipes. It is justified because active principles present in different herbal ingredients of a polyherbal recipe exert better therapeutic thrust through their synergistic effect (Amodu et al., 2013; Malik et al., 2017). Therefore, the uses of such polyherbal remedies involving diversified medicinal plants for cattle health indicate the depth and width of the knowledge regarding traditional healthcare for the veterinary animals in the area.
In case of external or topical application, the paste is mainly used as poultice because it is comparatively convenient to apply to the exterior of the affected body part of the veterinary animals. Besides, it is effortless to administer the paste with the animals’ feed orally. It has been noticed that the administration of paste for the treatment of various health disorders of both humans and livestock is a common practice in traditional medicines throughout the world (Giday et al., 2010; Vijayakumar et al., 2016). The probable cause for applying paste in a higher percentage is that paste is prepared easily within a short time by a simple method using convenient and small tools.
Like the present study, most of the cases of oral administrations of folk preparation have been encountered in several earlier studies (Jorim et al., 2012; Aziz et al., 2018). Side by side topical application of folk remedies remains an important mode of drug administration to treat diseases, such as skin disorders, wounds, rheumatic pain, and body pain (Sargin et al., 2013; Tariq et al., 2016). Specifically, topical use of poultice increases blood circulation in the affected portions of the body. It also protects the infected wounds or sores from microbial infection again by providing a protective cover to the affected parts in the form of a medicated layer of drug substances. Moreover, many healing substances of the medicinal herbs present in a poultice (such as antiseptic essential oils, phenolics, and tannins) infiltrate through animal tissues, helping it fight against infection and reduce inflammation. Finally, healing of the wound is promoted.
4.3 Magico-Religious Healing
Superstition and magico-religious belief are very much integrated with the life, culture, and health of the ethnic people worldwide (Ahirwar, 2015; Pangging et al., 2018). Like other tribal or ethnic communities, indigenous people of the present study area have a strong faith in magico-religious practices performed to cure and diagnose certain diseases of their domesticated animals. They believe that certain diseases in veterinary animals are caused by the bad influences of evil spirits or some supernatural powers. They treat those sick animals by holy chanting, performing special rituals, and offering prayers and sacrifices to appease the suspected evil power by which, according to their belief, certain disease conditions are developed.
4.4 New Uses
After thoroughly checking the relevant books and research articles on ethnoveterinary medicine published from India, 68 EVMPs are found new in several aspects of the existing inventory of Indian ethnoveterinary medicine (Table 1 and Supplementary Table S4). The ethnoveterinary uses of 24 plant species documented in this investigation are exclusively new for India as they have not been reported in the standard literature consulted (Pal and Jain, 1998; Jain, 1999; Ghosh, 2003; Rahaman et al., 2009; Katewa et al., 2010; Jain, 2012; Kumar et al., 2012; Saha et al., 2014; Jain and Jain, 2016; Sikarwar, 2017). The 24 EVM plants identified as new for their uses are Abutilon hirtum (Lam.) Sweet, Aerva javanica (Burm.f.) Juss. ex Schult., Albizia procera (Roxb.) Benth., Coleus strobilifer (Roxb.) A.J.Paton, Cajanus goensis Dalzell, Breynia vitis-idaea (Burm.f.) C.E.C.Fisch., Caladium bicolor (Aiton) Vent., Centipeda minima (L.) A.Braun & Asch., Cotula anthemoides Lour., Croton persimilis Müll.Arg., Eulophia explanata Lindl., Hydrolea zeylanica (L.) Vahl, Ipomoea cairica (L.) Sweet, Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker Gawl., Jatropha nana Dalzell & A.Gibson, Phoenix acaulis Roxb., Phyllodium pulchellum (L.) Desv., Piper cubeba L.f., Rotheca serrata (L.) Steane & Mabb., Seseli diffusum (Roxb. ex Sm.) Santapau & Wagh, Tacca leontopetaloides (L.) Kuntze, Uraria lagopoides (L.) DC., Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Roscoe ex Sm., and Ludwigia adscendens (L.) H.Hara.
It has been noticed that 31 recorded taxa reported earlier as EVMPs are found new in respect of the diseases cured by them. The plant Alangium salviifolium (L.f.) Wangerin was reported earlier for the treatment of cattle suffering from cough, liver trouble, and poisonous bite (Jain, 1999; Galav et al., 2013), but the same plant was recorded here for the use in curing general weakness.
Five investigated taxa of the present work differ in respect of remedy preparation modes with the earlier reports made by different workers, although those five plants are used for curing similar types of diseases such as fever, wound, mastitis, arthritis, and dysentery. For example, leaf of Nicotiana rustica L. is solely used as a germicide to heal cattle wounds (Jain, 1999). However, the leaf of it is administered here topically as paste along with mustard oil and “Sankhachurna” (a rich source of calcium carbonate) for the same purpose. Again, four EVMPs have been found new regarding their parts used. For example, leaves of Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet have been reported earlier for eye problems (Jain, 1999), but here, for the same purpose, using the root of the same plant is exclusively a new report. Apart from the new uses of angiospermic taxa, ethnoveterinary medicinal uses of Pteridophytes such as Adiantum philippense subsp. philippense is reported first time here as EVMPs from India. On the contrary, the use of Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw. root is very much new in respect of treating livestock diseases such as fever of goat (Jain, 1999; Katewa et al., 2010; Jain, 2012; Sikarwar, 2017).
Three fungal species such as Amanita vaginata var. alba Gillet, Lycoperdon perlatum Pers., and Termitomyces heimii Natarajan have been recorded as ethnoveterinary medicine used by the local traditional healers in the northern laterite region of West Bengal. Among these three fungal species, medicinal uses of Amanita vaginata var. alba Gillet and Termitomyces heimii Natarajan for curing veterinary diseases are exclusively the new addition to the existing database on ethnoveterinary medicine of India (Jain, 1999; Katewa et al., 2010; Jain, 2012; Jain and Jain, 2016).
The present study contributes 68 new medicinal claims, which is substantial and certainly enriches the existing inventories on ethnoveterinary medicine of India. Thus, the present investigation unveils the knowledge diversity of veterinary medicine in the study area and gives a clear indication regarding further studies exploring more novel information from the area after interacting with the traditional specialist healers of livestock diseases. All the new claims of EVMPs recorded here should scientifically be validated to develop bioactive compounds, and effective veterinary drugs have to be standardized after their toxicity assessment.
4.5 Informant Consensus and Cultural Value of Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants
Fic value (above 0.7) suggest a high consensus among the participants regarding the uses of large numbers of EVMPs in disease categories such as gastrointestinal disorders, poisonous effect, enteric diseases, fever, and related problems. All these livestock health problems are prevalent in the studied area, and local peoples’ understanding and perception of these health issues make them experts in disease diagnosis and prescribing effective folk remedies.
Fic is assigned to measure the consensus of participants regarding plant uses in a particular disease category, whereas the determination of the fidelity level (FL) helps to identify the most effective plant species cited for that particular disease category. Though sometimes, the FL value misleads in data interpretation when attaining a maximum score with few citations for one or two purposes. On the contrary, a species with multiple uses may show a lower FL value with more citations for a particular purpose. Therefore, it does not indicate that a plant with a higher fidelity percentage may have a maximal citation number. For this reason, in the present study, along with the FL value, the number of use mentions for a plant species made by all participants has been considered to recognize the most reliable species used in a disease category (Andrade-Cetto and Heinrich, 2011). A total of 23 species have been identified here as the most important medicinal plants whose FL value and citation number are higher than the other recorded plant species.
Among the frequently cited 68 EVM plant species, nine plants have been identified as the most valuable ones in the culture of the studied area, which indicate that the knowledge about uses of those nine plants is well distributed among the people of the area because of their higher frequency of citations as well as multipurpose uses, which are the basic components of the CV index.
The resulting value of the CV index is extracted from the cumulative effort of all the factors such as total number of use reports, total number of use categories, citation frequency, and the total number of participants interviewed. Therefore, the use of the CV index for assessing the cultural importance of a species is much more accurate than the individual application of indices such as UV, FL, or RFC, which are not independent of each other and function more or less similarly (Dudney et al., 2015). Thus, the scientific community should consider the CV index as an effective tool for assessing the overall cultural value of a species.
4.6 Conservation Facets
Quantitative analysis of ethnobotanical data not only helps identify the most important plant species but also provides information about those most frequently exploited plant species in a particular area, which will help frame a strategy for the conservation of those exploited plants. Among the important plants, some species that have been cited in a very high frequency are naturally facing a high collection pressure because of their use in more significant amounts than the other important species with lower citation frequency. Such species with the high use demand identified here are Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees, Aristolochia indica L., Soymida febrifuga (Roxb.) A. Juss., Madhuca longifolia (J.Koenig ex L.) J.F.Macbr., Asparagus racemosus Willd., Smilax ovalifolia Roxb. ex D.Don, Semecarpus anacardium L.f., Casearia tomentosa Roxb., Barleria prionitis L., and Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd. It is assumed that these species might face certain degrees of population decline shortly due to their excessive collection from the wild. Many other factors, such as unsustainable harvest of the bark (ring barking), underground part (uprooting of the whole plant), seed or fruit (indiscriminate collection), and habitat destruction, are also found responsible for the population decline of those most exploited plant species in the area. This fact has already been reflected in some phyto-sociological studies carried out in different forest areas of the northern laterite region of West Bengal, where very low populations of many of those above-mentioned plants were encountered (Joshi, 2012; Bauri et al., 2013; Bhattacharya and Mukherjee, 2013; Bouri et al., 2014; Pradhan and Rahaman, 2015; Ganguli et al., 2016). All those plants frequently used in the study area should get priority for their immediate conservation. In doing this, a separate research program has to be undertaken to identify the most prioritized species in the northern laterite part of West Bengal employing the well-devised dedicated statistical index like conservation priority index (CPI) or local conservation priority index (LCPI) (Oliveira et al., 2007; Lucena et al., 2013). In the present investigation, only the indication has been made toward population decline and collection pressure of the most frequently used medicinal plants in this region so that the researchers in the future can pursue their research activity in this direction.
4.7 Ethnopharmacological Rationalization of Most Important Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants
The detailed phytochemical and pharmacological screenings of the identified nine most valuable EVMPs should be prioritized for developing new bio-active constituents. Many of those nine culturally important plants have been screened earlier for their phytochemical and pharmacological properties. In many cases, pharmacological evidence of the earlier works validates the ethnomedicinal claims associated with those culturally important plants. Amaranthus spinosus L. is prescribed for treatment of delay in parturition, body ache, fever, hemorrhagic septicemia, and retention of milk and validated by earlier pharmacological studies for its antispasmodic (Chaudhary et al., 2012), antimicrobial (Sheeba et al., 2013), antioxidant, and antipyretic (Kumar B. S. A. et al., 2010) properties. This plant has not yet been examined for its galactagogue activity, which needs a thorough investigation to justify its traditional use as an enhancer of milk secretion in cows.
Pharmacological investigations on the anti-osteoporotic and anti-inflammatory activities of Cissus quadrangularis L. substantiate the scientific basis of using this plant to treat fractured bone and swelling wart (Kumar M. et al., 2010; Nalini et al., 2011; Stohs and Ray, 2013). Nevertheless, no scientific validation has been made for its anthelmintic property recorded in the present investigation.
The uses of Wattakaka volubilis (L.f.) Stapf. in liver trouble and unusual urination of the cattle recorded here need detailed phytochemical and pharmacological studies for its validation of hepatoprotective and diuretic properties as this medicinal plant has not been screened in such directions before (Natarajan and Dhas, 2013; Chaudhuri and Chakraborty, 2017).
In case of Pueraria tuberose (Willd.) DC., the tuber of it is used by the local people to treat helminthiasis and poor lactation. Many biological activities of Pueraria tuber have already been examined by different groups of scientists from various parts of the world, but no pharmacological investigations are made on its veterinary anthelmintic property (Hinsch et al., 2000; Saha et al., 2012; Chauhan et al., 2013).
Therefore, from this discussion, it is understood that these nine plants are culturally important and provide some important clues, enabling the scientists to undertake a scientific investigation for evaluating their phytochemical and pharmacological profiles.
4.8 Scientific Justification of Using Preferred Additional Ingredients
Preference ranking exercise of the additional ingredients used in polyherbal preparations revealed that ingredients such as fruits of Piper nigrum L. and Piper longum L., rhizomes of Curcuma longa L. and Zingiber officinale Roscoe, and seeds of Nigella sativa L. are the most popular among the participants of the studied area. There is a long tradition of using peppers (both black and long peppers) and ginger in many folk remedies. Scientific attempts have been made to justify the reason for using these herbal ingredients in traditional medicine. Through experiments, it has been established that the fruits of Piper nigrum L. and Piper longum L. contain piperine alkaloid, which increases the bioavailability of active principles present in a drug preparation (Patil et al., 2011). Scientists have suggested two possible mechanisms in this regard. Piperine may promote rapid absorption of drugs and nutrients through the intestine, and it also inhibits the activities of enzymes involved in the enzymatic breakdown of drugs (Ajazuddin et al., 2014). In the present investigation, Piper longum L. is used as an additional ingredient of a polyherbal formulation prepared with Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Roscoe ex Sm., Zingiber officinale Roscoe, and Piper cubeba L.f. to treat post-partum weakness. The use of Piper longum L. as a bioenhancer has already been established in a scientific study where it showed that the antiasthmatic effect of vasaka (Adhatoda vasica Nees) is increased when long pepper is added to it (Randhawa et al., 2011). Likewise, the traditional use of Curcuma longa L. in ethnomedicine has scientifically been justified through several studies where curcumin, its bioactive compound, has been established as a potent natural bioenhancer (Zhang et al., 2007; Pavithra et al., 2009; Yan et al., 2010). Besides its wide range of pharmacological efficacy, ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) acts as an effective bioenhancer in promoting absorption of active phyto-constituents of the drug through the intestine (Qazi et al., 2003). Luteolin present in Cuminum cyminum L. exhibits its bioenhancing activity by inhibiting the activity of permeability glycoprotein (P-gp) present in the intestinal epithelium (Boumendjel et al., 2002). In a recent finding, it has been observed that active constituents of Nigella sativa L. interact with the co-administered drugs and enhance intestinal availability of the compounds present in the drugs (Ali et al., 2012). Therefore, the uses of all those herbal ingredients in polyherbal recipes as additional ingredients indicate that folk healers of the studied area have more excellent knowledge about different combinations of herbal ingredients in a traditional recipe, which helps enhance the effectiveness of the folk preparations.
4.9 Local Peoples’ Perception of Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Knowledge System and Its Resilience
EVM system is as old as the history of animal domestication, which is continuously being shaped and reshaped by trials and errors of using local biodiversity to maintain resilience. The resilience of the local EVM knowledge system depends on the utilization pattern of phytoresources and the knowledge transmission character (Santoro et al., 2015).
The present study witnessed some of the features of local EVM knowledge system which can play a crucial role in maintaining resilience such as men are much knowledgeable in practicing and applying EVM, most knowledgeable aged participants still possess substantial information of this therapeutic system, apart from the traditional expert practitioners of livestock diseases, a large number of participants have adequate EVM knowledge, and vertical transmission of knowledge is predominant. Local people of the laterite region of West Bengal depend mainly on cultivation and livestock rearing for their livelihood and by any sort of default the livestock population may decrease which creates a great bearing on their economy. For this reason people in the study area have been concerned to their livestock health care since ancient time and have been developed a well organized system of veterinary animal health care through regular incorporation of more and more newly innovated healing options for so many of ailments and diseases. A good number of EVM species have been used for single purpose (for example, 46 species of plants are used for gastro-intestinal problems of livestock) which is a good indicator of resilience of knowledge in the studied area because EVM system here does have a wide range of options for treatment of a particular disease, without being hampered due to unavailability of one or few drug plant resources.
5 Conclusion
The present study embodies a quite large extent of documented knowledge about 306 folk veterinary remedies which are worthy for its inclusion in the inventories on folk veterinary medicine and ethnomedicinal resources of the state and national level (Figure 7).
FIGURE 7.
The graphical abstract presents a summary of the current work highlighting its major facts and findings.
The uses of 68 EVMPs are new to the existing Indian ethnoveterinary pharmacopeia, which highlights the knowledge diversity and unknown knowledge on veterinary medicine in the surveyed area. Such new information create a golden opportunity in the field of bioprospecting research by providing the ethno-guided clues to the scientists for scientific validation, standardization, and safety evaluation of those plant species before their recommendation as ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM). Moreover, nine EVMPs have been identified as the most important species, which can also be considered statistically justified good candidates for their ethno-guided bioprospection in the future. The collaborative efforts of traditional and modern knowledge are needed here to develop new efficacious drugs for livestock diseases with minimum or zero side effects.
The present investigation highlights some basic concern about conservation status and collection pressure of those important ethno-species used most frequently in the area. To prioritize the most exploited species for conservation in the area, along with collection pressure faced by each species, other factors like, degree of access and population dynamics of each of the important species are to be considered.
The strength of the EVM system identified in the region is its knowledge diversity (recorded remedies 306) and diversity of associated drug resources including phytoresources (plant species recorded 232). The system is practiced among the local people in the area very actively with a good number of optional drug species assigned to the healing purposes of many common diseases. These characteristics of the EV knowledge articulate its vitality and also the flexibility of its many of the knowledge spheres. Knowledge transmission is operated here predominantly through vertical route that is also an indication of resilience of the EVM system. Besides, the greater part of this vast knowledge trove is confined to the aged people domain, not to the younger generation in the society of this area. This is a very alarming concern identified in the context of sustainability of EVM knowledge system in the northern laterite region of West Bengal, India.
Acknowledgments
We thank the Department of Botany (DST-FIST and UGC-DRS SAP-II supported), Visva-Bharati University, Santiniketan-731235, West Bengal, India for necessary facilities and administrative support. We are grateful to Retired professor Gour Gopal Maiti, Department of Botany, University of Kalyani, India, and Dr. Dulal Chandra Pal, Retired Scientist, Botanical Survey of India, for their immense help in identification of some of the collected voucher specimens. We acknowledge the guidance of Dr. Arindom Chakraborty, Department of Statistics, Visva-Bharati University, for the Spearman rank-order correlation analysis. We express our heartiest thanks to all the participants of the study area for offering their valuable time and sharing their traditional knowledge.
Footnotes
http://www.worldfloraonline.org retrieved on 10.02.2022.
http://www.theplantlist.org/retrieved on 05.01.2022.
http://www.tropicos.org/retrieved on 26.08.2021.
http://www.ars-grin.gov retrieved on 18.09.2021.
Data Availability Statement
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary Material. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.
Ethics Statement
There are no strict codes or rules to conduct ethnobiological research in India. The purpose and outcome of the present study have been explained in detail to the participants before their active engagement in the study. Participation of each participant was voluntary. For ethnobotanical data collection, Prior Informed Consent (PIC) was taken from each of the participants before interviewing them, following the decorum of Article 8(j) of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Written informed consent was obtained from the individual(s) and minor(s)’ legal guardian/next of kin for the publication of any potentially identifiable images or data included in this article. Resulted data will be included online at Shodhganga (https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/), a digital repository of research content maintained by University Grant Commission, India.
Author Contributions
SKM and CHR designed the work. SKM conducted the field survey, collected ethnomedicinal data, and analyzed the data. SKM and CHR wrote the manuscript, checked critically, and finalized the draft.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Publisher’s Note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations or those of the publisher, the editors, and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
Supplementary Material
The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphar.2022.861577/full#supplementary-material
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