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. 2022 Apr 25;11(9):1445. doi: 10.3390/cells11091445

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© 2022 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Summary of the effects of inhaled diesel exhaust particles (DEP) and probiotics (PRO) on intestinal integrity and associated microbiota. Exposure to inhaled DEP results increase (↑) Akkermansia and decreased (↓) Bifidobacterium associated with an increase in goblet cell formation and associated MUC2 expression, as well as an increase in claudin-3, occludin, ZO-1, MMP-9, and TLR-4, and a decrease in TNF-α and IL-10 when compared to saline control (CON). Probiotic treatment alters DEP exposure-response characterized by an increase (↑) in Akkermansia and Bifidobacterium and an increase in MUC2, occludin, TNF-α, IL-10, NFκB, and a decrease in claudin-3 and MMP-9. Probiotics without DEP exposure result in decreased (↓) Akkermansia and increase (↑) Bifidobacterium and an increase in MUC2, occludin, ZO-1, MMP-9, and NF-κB, and a decrease in claudin-3, TNF-α, and IL-10.