Abstract
慢性牙周炎属于慢性感染性疾病,与多种全身疾病存在双向关系。帕金森病是一种常见的神经退行性变性疾病,炎症反应在其进展中起到一定作用。近年来,大量研究提示慢性牙周炎与帕金森病等神经退行性变性疾病之间存在潜在联系,帕金森病患者牙周状况较差,其口腔菌群组成与健康人群存在差异;与此同时,慢性牙周炎患者罹患帕金森病的风险更高,定期牙周治疗可能在一定程度上降低该风险。慢性牙周炎与帕金森病的相互作用机制尚未明确,部分研究认为帕金森病患者可能由于运动及非运动症状,无法有效维护口腔卫生,增加牙周炎患病风险;小胶质细胞介导的神经炎症则可能是慢性牙周炎影响帕金森病的关键,牙周致病菌及炎症介质或可通过多种途径进入大脑并激活小胶质细胞,最终影响帕金森病的发生发展。本文就慢性牙周炎与帕金森病相关性及可能的交互作用机制的最新研究进展作一综述,以期为进一步探讨两者相互影响的研究提供思路。
Abstract
Chronic periodontitis is an infectious disease, which has a reciprocal relationship with a variety of systemic disorders. Parkinson’s disease is a prevalent neurodegenerative disease in which inflammation plays an important role for its progression. A vast number of studies suggest that there is a potential connection between chronic periodontitis and neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s disease. Individuals with Parkinson’s disease usually have poor periodontal health, and their oral flora composition differs from that of healthy people; at the same time, patients with chronic periodontitis have a higher risk of Parkinson’s disease, which can be reduced with regular periodontal treatment. In fact, the mechanism of interaction between chronic periodontitis and Parkinson’s disease is not clear. According to several studies, the clinical symptoms of Parkinson’s disease prevent patients to maintain oral hygiene effectively, increasing the risk of periodontitis. Neuroinflammation mediated by microglia may be the key to the influence of chronic periodontitis on Parkinson’s disease. Periodontal pathogens and inflammatory mediators may enter the brain and activate microglia in various ways, and ultimately leading to occurrence and development of Parkinson’s disease. This article reviews the recent research progress on the association between chronic periodontitis and Parkinson’s disease, and its potential mechanism to provide information for further research.
Keywords: Chronic periodontitis, Parkinson’s disease, Neuroinflammation, Microglia, Periodontal bacteria, Review
风险比(hazard ratio,HR);置信区间(confidence interval,CI);比值比(odds ratio,OR);肿瘤坏死因子(tumor necrosis factor,TNF);白介素(interleukin,IL);
慢性牙周炎是一种以牙菌斑生物膜为始动因子,牙龈炎症及牙周支持组织破坏为主要表现的慢性感染性疾病,是成年人失牙的主要原因。微生物感染和宿主免疫炎症反应是影响慢性牙周炎发病的关键因素。我国第四次口腔健康流行病学调查报告显示,国民口腔健康状况较差,牙周病发病率及其严重程度随年龄增长而增加 [1] 。慢性牙周炎不仅破坏牙周支持组织从而影响牙周健康及咬合功能,还通过牙周致病菌及炎症介质干扰全身健康,已有研究证实慢性牙周炎与心脑血管疾病、糖尿病、呼吸系统疾病等全身系统性疾病相关 [2] 。
帕金森病是一种常见的神经退行性变性疾病,患病率仅次于阿尔茨海默病。随着人口老龄化的进展,我国帕金森病患病数急剧上升,社会经济负担沉重 [3] 。研究预测,2030年全球15个国家中50岁以上的帕金森病患病数将达到870万~930万,其中中国帕金森病患者占比超过50% [4] 。帕金森病患者可表现出静止性震颤、肌强直、运动迟缓和姿势步态障碍等运动症状,以及便秘、认知功能障碍、情绪障碍等非运动症状 [5] 。其病理基础与脑黑质多巴胺能神经元变性及α突触核蛋白在神经元内异常聚集形成路易体有关 [6] 。然而帕金森病的病因及发病机制尚未明确,老龄化、遗传及环境因素等可能通过氧化应激反应、神经毒性作用及线粒体功能障碍等机制导致多巴胺能神经元变性坏死而引起帕金森病发病 [ 7- 9] 。近年来,炎症反应在帕金森病进展中的重要作用受到广泛关注,外周炎症可激活脑内小胶质细胞,诱发神经炎症,从而促进帕金森病的发生发展 [10] 。
研究表明,慢性牙周炎与神经退行性变性疾病之间也存在潜在联系 [ 11- 12] ,如牙周致病菌及病毒可通过多种途径引起脑内神经炎症,诱发或加速阿尔茨海默病的病程发展 [13] 。帕金森病与阿尔茨海默病同属于神经退行性变性疾病,其与慢性牙周炎是否存在关联也是研究者的兴趣所在。本文就慢性牙周炎与帕金森病相关性及可能的交互作用机制的最新研究进展作一综述。
国外多项横断面研究显示,帕金森病患者的社区牙周指数、平均牙周袋探诊深度及慢性牙周炎患病率显著高于健康对照者,牙龈退缩和牙齿松动情况也更严重 [ 14- 18] 。Pradeep等 [18] 分析了45例帕金森病患者和46例非帕金森病者的牙周状况,发现帕金森病患者的平均牙周袋探诊深度、临床附着丧失、牙龈指数、菌斑指数及探诊出血阳性位点百分比均显著高于非帕金森病者,且上述牙周指标均随着帕金森病的加重而恶化。帕金森病患者的咀嚼功能及口腔健康状况随着帕金森病严重程度加重而下降 [ 19- 20] 。近期一项研究对帕金森病患者牙周临床指数与运动检查得分的关系进行评估,结果显示平均牙周袋探诊深度、菌斑指数、探诊出血阳性位点百分比等牙周临床指数随帕金森病患者上肢肌强直及静止性震颤的严重程度加重而恶化 [21] 。但目前报道的研究仍存在样本量较小、牙周指标不全面、纳入和排除标准不完善等不足,且我国尚缺乏帕金森病患者牙周状况调查的相关数据,后续可进行设计完善的高质量流行病学研究。
人体口腔中含有大量微生物,近年来多项研究关注口腔微生物群与中枢神经系统疾病、胃肠疾病及肿瘤等全身疾病之间的关系 [22] 。多项研究分析了帕金森病患者的口腔菌群特征,Einarsdóttir等 [15] 的研究显示帕金森病患者唾液标本中变形链球菌数和乳杆菌数显著高于对照组;Pereira等 [23] 及Rozas等 [24] 分别对帕金森病患者和健康对照者的口腔棉拭子标本进行16s rDNA测序分析,结果均表明两组在口腔菌群β多样性上存在显著性差异;Fleury等 [25] 对帕金森病患者龈下菌斑及唾液进行分析,发现变形链球菌、乳杆菌、口金氏菌等多种细菌丰度显著高于健康对照者;Mihaila等 [26] 应用鸟枪法宏转录组分析发现早期帕金森病患者运动速度减慢时,罗伊氏乳杆菌丰度升高。总之,帕金森病患者的口腔微生物组成与健康对照者存在一定差异。
牙石等局部促进因素有利于牙菌斑堆积,促进牙周病的形成与发展。流行病学研究显示,帕金森病患者菌斑指数显著高于非帕金森病者 [15] ,菌斑的异常堆积可能由以下因素造成:帕金森病患者常伴有多种运动障碍,无法有效完成刷牙等简单的口腔维护工作,也影响口腔医师进行龈上洁治、龈下刮治等去除菌斑、牙石等操作;帕金森病患者可能出现认知功能障碍及言语障碍,无法及时寻求口腔医师的帮助 [27] 。
性激素、吸烟、精神压力等全身促进因素可改变宿主对菌斑微生物的反应,加速牙周病进程。帕金森病患者可能存在焦虑、睡眠障碍等症状,一项大样本回顾性研究提示抑郁或可成为帕金森病的独立危险因素 [28] 。较大的精神压力通过刺激下丘脑-垂体-肾上腺轴影响宿主防御系统,同时可能改变宿主吸烟、饮食及锻炼等行为,从而促进慢性牙周炎发展 [29] 。
多项大样本回顾性队列研究分析了慢性牙周炎患者的牙周健康状况与帕金森病患病风险之间的关系。Liu等 [30] 纳入53 351例慢性牙周炎患者和266 755名健康对照者,Cox回归分析结果显示,与健康对照者相比,慢性牙周炎患者5年随访期间帕金森病发病的风险更高( HR=1.43,95% CI:1.32~1.55);Chen等 [31] 发现牙周炎和牙龈炎患者发生帕金森病的风险明显升高( HR=1.43,95% CI:1.14~1.79);另有学者采用Kaplan-Meier分析结果发现牙周炎患者帕金森病发病率更高 [32] 。一项队列研究通过多因素分析发现,在调整年龄和性别等因素后,牙齿缺失数与帕金森病发病率成正相关,其中15颗及以上牙齿缺失可能是新发帕金森病的危险因素( HR=1.38,95% CI:1.03~1.85) [33] 。Chen等 [34] 对牙周洁治与帕金森病发病风险的关系进行研究,发现牙周定期治疗有助于预防帕金森病的发生( OR=0.204,95% CI:0.047~0.886);另有研究表明,在慢性牙周炎合并帕金森病的患者中,接受牙周治疗的患者3个月内跌倒次数更少,10米步行测试和“起立-行走”计时测试的结果也显著优于未接受牙周治疗者 [35] 。未来仍须通过前瞻性研究明确两者的因果关系,或可将专业的口腔卫生保健纳入帕金森病患者的综合治疗中。
目前有关慢性牙周炎与帕金森病交互作用机制的研究较少,尚未有明确结论。部分学者认为,牙周致病菌和炎症介质在慢性牙周炎进展过程中大量释放,进入中枢神经系统并通过激活小胶质细胞、诱发神经炎症,促进帕金森病等神经退行性变性疾病的发生发展 [ 11, 27] 。小胶质细胞是中枢神经系统的重要免疫细胞,具有维持大脑稳态的作用 [36] ,同时也是慢性牙周炎等外周炎症与帕金森病等神经退行性变性疾病产生联系的关键。研究发现,帕金森病患者大脑中存在小胶质细胞的广泛激活 [37] 。激活的小胶质细胞可通过缓慢释放TNF-α、IL-1β及IL-6等炎症介质,加重中脑黑质多巴胺能神经元死亡 [27] 。外周炎症与神经炎症间的信号传递还须突破血脑屏障的阻碍。血脑屏障主要由毛细血管内皮细胞及神经胶质细胞构成,连接紧密,可选择性阻碍物质从血液进入大脑,其结构及功能完整性与多种中枢神经系统疾病进程密切相关 [38] 。一项帕金森病患者尸体解剖研究结果显示,其脑组织中普遍存在血脑屏障的结构破坏 [39] 。年龄增长可增加血脑屏障通透性,TNF-α和病原微生物也可破坏血脑屏障的结构 [ 40- 41] 。另外,室周器官是第三、四脑室周围的一系列微小器官,血管周围间隙则是脑穿支血管周围的腔隙,由于缺乏完整的血脑屏障结构,部分物质可通过室周器官和血管周围间隙进入大脑 [ 42- 43] 。上述细胞及结构均可能是慢性牙周炎等外周炎症引发神经炎症从而影响帕金森病的关键环节。
随着微生物-肠-脑轴的深入研究,部分学者提出口腔-全身轴的理念 [44] 。Xue等 [45] 研究表明,慢性牙周炎小鼠存在口腔及肠道微生物菌群失调,出现肠-脑轴紊乱,提示慢性牙周炎可通过微生物菌群影响全身健康。慢性牙周炎进展中涉及多种牙周致病菌,其中牙龈卟啉单胞菌( Porphyromonas gingivalis)、福赛斯坦纳菌( Tannerella forsythia)及齿垢密螺旋体( Treponema denticola)组成的“红色复合体”与其发生发展密切相关 [46] 。多项研究支持牙龈卟啉单胞菌积极参与了阿尔茨海默病的形成与发展 [13] 。Dominy等 [47] 研究表明,阿尔茨海默病患者大脑标本及脑脊液中可鉴定出牙龈卟啉单胞菌特异性基因,其大脑标本及神经细胞中还存在牙龈卟啉单胞菌的主要毒力因子牙龈蛋白酶,该研究同时指出小鼠口腔内涂布牙龈卟啉单胞菌后在其大脑中可检测到β-淀粉样蛋白聚积(阿尔茨海默病的主要病理特征),应用牙龈蛋白酶抑制剂能有效降低β-淀粉样蛋白沉积,提示牙龈蛋白酶与阿尔茨海默病密切相关。帕金森病和阿尔茨海默病均为神经退行性变性疾病,发病机制可能存在相通之处,有研究在帕金森病患者血液标本中同样检测到牙龈蛋白酶的存在 [48] ,说明牙龈卟啉单胞菌或可成为探索慢性牙周炎与帕金森病关联的靶向菌 [49] 。此外,牙周致病菌的产物如脂多糖可能与帕金森病疾病进展有关:脂多糖是革兰阴性菌的内毒素,腹腔注射脂多糖可通过激活基质金属蛋白酶提高血脑屏障的通透性 [50] ;大鼠脑黑质内直接注射脂多糖,则可观察到小胶质细胞广泛激活和多巴胺能神经元变性 [51] 。这些牙周致病菌及其产物或可通过以下方式进入大脑:①经血液进入体循环,直接破坏血脑屏障或通过室周器官及血管周围间隙侵入大脑 [52] ;②经三叉神经及嗅神经绕过血脑屏障进入中枢神经系统 [53] ;③以软脑膜为中介传递炎症信号 [54] ,Liu等 [55] 研究提示脂多糖可诱导软脑膜细胞释放TNF-α和IL-1β,激活脑内小胶质细胞。
帕金森病患者外周血及脑脊液中TNF-α、IL-1β、IL-2及IL-6水平显著升高,其中外周血中IL-6水平与帕金森病发病风险呈正相关,提示帕金森病与炎症存在关联 [ 10, 56- 57] 。慢性牙周炎诱导巨噬细胞向局部组织及血液中释放大量TNF-α、IL-1β和IL-6等炎症介质,引起全身慢性炎症,上述炎症介质或可通过体液、神经、细胞三条途径将外周炎症信号传入中枢神经系统 [12] :①体循环中的炎症介质直接破坏血脑屏障,或通过室周器官及血管周围间隙侵入大脑;②直接激活迷走神经等初级传入神经纤维将信号传入大脑 [58] ,实施迷走神经切断术可降低帕金森病发病风险 [59] ;③通过刺激内皮细胞作用于血管周围巨噬细胞,后者进一步激活小胶质细胞,从而诱发神经炎症,影响帕金森病的发生发展。
近期一项研究对帕金森病与慢性牙周炎间潜在的蛋白质互作关系进行分析,建立蛋白质互作网络,为两种疾病相关联的分子机制提供新的靶点 [60] 。合理运用基因组学、蛋白质组学、代谢组学等多组学检测技术有助于多水平、多层次探索疾病的分子机制 [61] 。
综上所述,慢性牙周炎与帕金森病关系密切,可能互为危险因素:一方面,帕金森病患者牙周状况差于非帕金森病者,发生慢性牙周炎的概率更高;另一方面,慢性牙周炎患者罹患帕金森病的风险高于非慢性牙周炎者,定期牙周治疗可能在一定程度上降低该风险。大量研究认为帕金森病患者由于部分运动及非运动症状,无法有效维护口腔卫生,从而加重牙周疾病;慢性牙周炎则通过牙周致病菌及炎症介质扩散至脑内激活小胶质细胞,诱发神经炎症,从而促进帕金森病的形成与发展。因此,须关注帕金森病患者的口腔状况,或可将专业的口腔卫生保健纳入帕金森病患者的综合治疗中。事实上,目前证据尚不能确定慢性牙周炎与帕金森病之间是否存在确切的因果关系,两者具体交互作用机制也未明晰,高质量流行病学研究、微生物菌群失调及多组学联合分析或可成为未来的研究方向。
COMPETING INTERESTS
所有作者均声明不存在利益冲突
References
- 1.王 兴. 第四次全国口腔健康流行病学调查报告[M]. 北京: 人民卫生出版社, 2018: 106-113
- 2.GENCO R J, SANZ M. Clinical and public health implications of periodontal and systemic diseases: an overview[J] Periodontol 2000. . 2020;83(1):7–13. doi: 10.1111/prd.12344. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 3.刘疏影, 陈 彪. 帕金森病流行现状[J]. 中国现代神经疾病杂志, 2016, 16(2): 98-101 ; LIU Shuying, CHEN Biao. Epidemiology of Parkinson’s disease[J]. Chinese Journal of Contemporary Neurology and Neurosurgery, 2016, 16(2): 98-101. (in Chinese)
- 4.DORSEY E R, CONSTANTINESCU R, THOMPSON J P, et al. Projected number of people with Parkinson disease in the most populous nations, 2005 through 2030[J] Neurology. . 2007;68(5):384–386. doi: 10.1212/01.wnl.0000247740.47667.03. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 5.KALIA L V, LANG A E. Parkinson’s disease[J] Lancet. . 2015;386(9996):896–912. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61393-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 6.DICKSON D W, BRAAK H, DUDA J E, et al. Neuropathological assessment of Parkinson’s disease: refining the diagnostic criteria[J] Lancet Neurol. . 2009;8(12):1150–1157. doi: 10.1016/s1474-4422(09)70238-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 7.JOHNSON M E, STECHER B, LABRIE V, et al. Triggers, facilitators, and aggravators: redefining parkinson’s disease pathogenesis[J] Trends Neuroscis. . 2019;42(1):4–13. doi: 10.1016/j.tins.2018.09.007. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 8.BURBULLA L F, SONG P, MAZZULLI J R, et al. Dopamine oxidation mediates mitochondrial and lysosomal dysfunction in Parkinson’s disease[J] Science. . 2017;357(6357):1255–1261. doi: 10.1126/science.aam9080. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 9.PUSPITA L, CHUNG S Y, SHIM J W. Oxidative stress and cellular pathologies in Parkinson’s disease[J] Mol Brain. . 2017;10(1):53. doi: 10.1186/s13041-017-0340-9. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 10.YAN J, FU Q, CHENG L, et al. Inflammatory response in Parkinson’s disease (Review)[J] Mol Med Rep. . 2014;10(5):2223–2233. doi: 10.3892/mmr.2014.2563. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 11.李 琳, 王 丹, 赵曼竹, 等. 慢性牙周炎与神经退行性疾病相关性的研究进展[J]. 国际口腔医学杂志, 2017, 44(5): 514-518 ; LI Lin, WANG Dan, ZHAO Manzhu, et al. Research progress on the correlation between chronic periodontitis and neurodegenerative diseases[J]. Internation Journal of Stomatology, 2017, 44(5): 514-518. (in Chinese)
- 12.HASHIOKA S, INOUE K, MIYAOKA T, et al. The possible causal link of periodontitis to neuropsychiatric disorders: more than psychosocial mechanisms[J] Int J Mol Sci. . 2019;20(15):3723. doi: 10.3390/ijms20153723. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 13.钱雪申, 葛 颂. 慢性牙周炎与阿尔茨海默病关系的研究现状[J]. 中华口腔医学杂志, 2018, 53(4): 275-279 . [DOI] [PubMed]; QIAN Xueshen, GE Song.The state of the art research findings on the relationship between chronic periodontitis and Alzheimer’s disease: a review[J]. Chinese Journal of Stomatology, 2018, 53(4): 275-279. (in Chinese) . [DOI] [PubMed]
- 14.SCHWARZ J, HEIMHILGER E, STORCH A. Increased periodontal pathology in Parkinson’s disease[J] J Neurol. . 2006;253(5):608–611. doi: 10.1007/s00415-006-0068-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 15.EINARSDÓTTIR E R, GUNNSTEINSDÓTTIR H, HALLSDÓTTIR M H, et al. Dental health of patients with Parkinson’s disease in Iceland[J] Spec Care Dent. . 2009;29(3):123–127. doi: 10.1111/j.1754-4505.2009.00075.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 16.HANAOKA A, KASHIHARA K. Increased frequencies of caries, periodontal disease and tooth loss in patients with Parkinson’s disease[J] J Clin Neurosci. . 2009;16(10):1279–1282. doi: 10.1016/j.jocn.2008.12.027. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 17.MÜLLER T, PALLUCH R, ACKOWSKI J J. Caries and periodontal disease in patients with Parkinson’s disease[J] Spec Care Dent. . 2011;31(5):178–181. doi: 10.1111/j.1754-4505.2011.00205.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 18.PRADEEP A R, SINGH S P, MARTANDE S S, et al. Clinical evaluation of the periodontal health condition and oral health awareness in Parkinson’s disease patients[J] Gerodontology. . 2015;32(2):100–106. doi: 10.1111/ger.12055. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 19.BAKKE M, LARSEN S L, LAUTRUP C, et al. Orofacial function and oral health in patients with Parkinson’s disease[J] Eur J Oral Sci. . 2011;119(1):27–32. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0722.2010.00802.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 20.VAN STIPHOUT M A E, MARINUS J, VAN HILTEN J J, et al. Oral health of parkinson’s disease patients: a case-control study[J] Parkinsons Dis. . 2018;2018:1–8. doi: 10.1155/2018/9315285. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 21.LYRA P, MACHADO V, PROENÇA L, et al. Parkinson’s disease, periodontitis and patient-related outcomes: a cross-sectional study[J] Medicina. . 2020;56(8):383. doi: 10.3390/medicina56080383. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 22.PATINI R. Oral microbiota: discovering and facing the new associations with systemic diseases[J] Pathogens. . 2020;9(4):313. doi: 10.3390/pathogens9040313. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 23.PEREIRA P A B, AHO V T E, PAULIN L, et al. Oral and nasal microbiota in Parkinson’s disease[J] Parkinsonism Relat Disord. . 2017;38:61–67. doi: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2017.02.026. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 24.ROZAS N S, TRIBBLE G D, JETER C B. Oral factors that impact the oral microbiota in parkinson’s disease[J] Microorganisms. . 2021;9(8):1616. doi: 10.3390/microorganisms9081616. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 25.FLEURY V, ZEKERIDOU A, LAZAREVIC V, et al. Oral dysbiosis and inflammation in Parkinson’s disease[J] J Parkinson Dis. . 2021;11(2):619–631. doi: 10.3233/JPD-202459. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 26.MIHAILA D, DONEGAN J, BARNS S, et al. The oral microbiome of early stage Parkinson’s disease and its relationship with functional measures of motor and non-motor function[J/OL] PLoS One. . 2019;14(6):e0218252. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0218252. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 27.KAUR T, UPPOOR A, NAIK D. Parkinson’s disease and periodontitis——the missing link? A review[J] Gerodontology. . 2016;33(4):434–438. doi: 10.1111/ger.12188. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 28.SHEN C C, TSAI S J, PERNG C L, et al. Risk of Parkinson disease after depression: a nationwide population-based study[J] Neurology. . 2013;81(17):1538–1544. doi: 10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182a956ad. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 29.SABBAH W, GOMAA N, GIREESH A. Stress, allostatic load, and periodontal diseases[J] Periodontol 2000. . 2018;78(1):154–161. doi: 10.1111/prd.12238. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 30.LIU T C, SHEU J J, LIN H C, et al. Increased risk of parkinsonism following chronic periodontitis: a retrospective cohort study[J] Mov Disord. . 2013;28(9):1307–1308. doi: 10.1002/mds.25359. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 31.CHEN C K, WU Y T, CHANG Y C. Periodontal inflammatory disease is associated with the risk of Parkinson’s disease: a population-based retrospective matched-cohort study[J/OL] PeerJ. . 2017;5:e3647. doi: 10.7717/peerj.3647. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 32.JEONG E, PARK J B, PARK Y G. Evaluation of the association between periodontitis and risk of Parkinson’s disease: a nationwide retrospective cohort study[J] Sci Rep. . 2021;11(1):16594. doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-96147-4. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 33.WOO H G, CHANG Y, LEE J S, et al. Association of tooth loss with new-onset Parkinson’s disease: a nationwide population-based cohort study[J] Parkinsons Dis. . 2020;2020:4760512. doi: 10.1155/2020/4760512. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 34.CHEN C K, HUANG J Y, WU Y T, et al. Dental scaling decreases the risk of Parkinson’s disease: a nationwide population-based nested case-control study[J] Int J Environ Res Public Health. . 2018;15(8):1587. doi: 10.3390/ijerph15081587. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 35.LEDWON B, MISKIEWICZ A, GRABOWSKA E, et al. The relationship between periodontal disease and motor impairment in the course of Parkinson’s disease[J] Postepy Hig Med Dosw. . 2020;74:340–347. doi: 10.5604/01.3001.0014.3516. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 36.FROST J L, SCHAFER D P. Microglia: architects of the developing nervous system[J] Trends Cell Biol. . 2016;26(8):587–597. doi: 10.1016/j.tcb.2016.02.006. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 37.GERHARD A, PAVESE N, HOTTON G, et al. In vivo imaging of microglial activation with [11C](R)-PK11195 PET in idiopathic Parkinson’s disease[J] NeuroBiol Dis. . 2006;21(2):404–412. doi: 10.1016/j.nbd.2005.08.002. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 38.申 杰, 徐桂华. 血脑屏障与中枢神经系统疾病的相关性研究进展[J]. 中华神经医学杂志, 2020, 19(9): 961-965 ; SHEN Jie, XU Guihua. Recent advance in relation between blood-brain barrier and central nervous system diseases[J]. Chinese Journal of Neuromedicine, 2020, 19(9): 961-965. (in Chinese)
- 39.GRAY M T, WOULFE J M. Striatal blood-brain barrier permeability in Parkinson’s disease[J] J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. . 2015;35(5):747–750. doi: 10.1038/jcbfm.2015.32. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 40.DICKSTEIN J B, MOLDOFSKY H, HAY J B. Brain-blood permeability: TNF-α promotes escape of protein tracer from CSF to blood[J] Am J Physiol-Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol. . 2000;279(1):R148–R151. doi: 10.1152/ajpregu.2000.279.1.R148. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 41.NAVARATHNA D H M L P, MUNASINGHE J, LIZAK M J, et al. MRI confirms loss of blood-brain barrier integrity in a mouse model of disseminated candidiasis[J] NMR Biomed. . 2013;26(9):1125–1134. doi: 10.1002/nbm.2926. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 42.FRY M, FERGUSON A V. The sensory circumventricular organs: brain targets for circulating signals controlling ingestive behavior[J] Physiol Behav. . 2007;91(4):413–423. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.04.003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 43.WARDLAW J M, BENVENISTE H, NEDERGAARD M, et al. Perivascular spaces in the brain: anatomy, physiology and pathology[J] Nat Rev Neurol. . 2020;16(3):137–153. doi: 10.1038/s41582-020-0312-z. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 44.FREIRE M, NELSON K E, EDLUND A. The oral host——microbial interactome: an ecological chronometer of health?[J] Trends Microbiol. . 2021;29(6):551–561. doi: 10.1016/j.tim.2020.11.004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 45.XUE L, ZOU X, YANG X Q, et al. Chronic periodontitis induces microbiota-gut-brain axis disorders and cognitive impairment in mice[J] Exp Neurol. . 2020;326:113176. doi: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2020.113176. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 46.LANZA E, MAGAN-FERNANDEZ A, BERMEJO B, et al. Complementary clinical effects of red complex bacteria on generalized periodontitis in a caucasian population[J] Oral Dis. . 2016;22(5):430–437. doi: 10.1111/odi.12471. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 47.DOMINY S S, LYNCH C, ERMINI F, et al. Porphyromonas gingivalis in Alzheimer’s disease brains: evidence for disease causation and treatment with small-molecule inhibitors[J/OL] . Sci Adv. . 2019;5(1):eaau3333. doi: 10.1126/sciadv.aau3333. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 48.ADAMS B, NUNES J M, PAGE M J, et al. Parkinson’s disease: a systemic inflammatory disease accompanied by bacterial inflammagens[J] Front Aging Neurosci. . 2019;11:210. doi: 10.3389/fnagi.2019.00210. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 49.OLSEN I, KELL D B, PRETORIUS E. Is porphyromonas gingivalis involved in Parkinson’s disease?[J] . Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. . 2020;39(11):2013–2018. doi: 10.1007/s10096-020-03944-2. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 50.FRISTER A, SCHMIDT C, SCHNEBLE N, et al. Phosphoinositide 3-kinase γ affects LPS-induced disturbance of blood-brain barrier via lipid kinase-independent control of cAMP in microglial cells[J] Neuromol Med. . 2014;16(4):704–713. doi: 10.1007/s12017-014-8320-z. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 51.HERRERA A J, CASTAÑO A, VENERO J L, et al. The single intranigral injection of LPS as a new model for studying the selective effects of inflammatory reactions on dopaminergic system[J] NeuroBiol Dis. . 2000;7(4):429–447. doi: 10.1006/nbdi.2000.0289. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 52.RANJAN R, ABHINAY A, MISHRA M. Can oral microbial infections be a risk factor for neurodegeneration? A review of the literature[J] Neurol India. . 2018;66(2):344. doi: 10.4103/0028-3886.227315. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 53.DANIELYAN L, SCHÄFER R, VON AMELN-MAYERHOFER A, et al. Intranasal delivery of cells to the brain[J] Eur J Cell Biol. . 2009;88(6):315–324. doi: 10.1016/j.ejcb.2009.02.001. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 54.王 鹞, 吕慧欣, 杜留熠, 等. 软脑膜在外周炎症影响神经炎症过程中的作用[J]. 国际口腔医学杂志, 2019, 46(2): 223-227 ; WANG Yao, LYU Huixin, DU Liuyi, et al. Roles of leptomeninges in the effect of chronic peripheral inflammation on neuroinflammation[J]. International Journal of Stomatology, 2019, 46(2): 223-227. (in Chinese)
- 55.LIU Y, WU Z, ZHANG X, et al. Leptomeningeal cells transduce peripheral macrophages inflammatory signal to microglia in reponse to porphyromonas gingivalis LPS[J] . Mediators Inflamm. . 2013;2013:407562. doi: 10.1155/2013/407562. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 56.CHAO Y, WONG S C, TAN E K. Evidence of inflammatory system involvement in Parkinson’s disease[J] Biomed Res Int. . 2014;2014:308654. doi: 10.1155/2014/308654. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 57.CHEN H, O’REILLY E J, SCHWARZSCHILD M A, et al. Peripheral inflammatory biomarkers and risk of Parkinson’s disease[J] Am J Epidemiol. . 2007;167(1):90–95. doi: 10.1093/aje/kwm260. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 58.CAPURON L, MILLER A H. Immune system to brain signaling: neuropsychopharmacological implications[J] Pharmacol Ther. . 2011;130(2):226–238. doi: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2011.01.014. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 59.SVENSSON E, HORVÁTH-PUHÓ E, THOMSEN R W, et al. Vagotomy and subsequent risk of Parkinson’s disease[J] Ann Neurol. . 2015;78(4):522–529. doi: 10.1002/ana.24448. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 60.BOTELHO J, MASCARENHAS P, MENDES J J, et al. Network protein interaction in Parkinson’s disease and periodontitis interplay: a preliminary bioinformatic analysis[J] Genes. . 2020;11(11):1385. doi: 10.3390/genes11111385. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 61.庞元捷, 吕 筠, 余灿清, 等. 多组学在慢性病病因学研究中的应用及其进展[J]. 中华流行病学杂志, 2021, 42(1): 1-9 . [DOI] [PubMed]; PANG Yuanjie, LYU Jun, YU Canqing, et al. A multi-omics approach to investigate the etiology of non-communicable diseases: recent advance and applications[J]. Chinese Journal of Epidemiology, 2021, 42(1): 1-9. (in Chinese) . [DOI] [PubMed]
