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. 2022 Feb 26;44(2):785–803. doi: 10.1007/s11357-022-00530-6

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — Examination of PACAP-38 levels in healthy controls (control) (n = 37) and patients with Parkinson’s disease (PD). PD patients were divided into two groups, those who received deep brain stimulation (DBS) (n = 46) and those who were not treated with DBS (non-DBS) (n = 60). Significantly reduced PACAP-38 levels were measured in the non-DBS group compared to the control group. On the other hand, significantly elevated levels were detected in the DBS group compared to the non-DBS group. The boxes show the interquartile ranges, and the whiskers indicate the 25% and 75% percentile; outliers are also plotted with numbered data points labeled with circles and asterisk. The middle line within the boxes represents the median values. One-way ANOVA with Tukey’s post-hoc test, ** p < 0.001 vs. non-DBS group