Abstract
Background:
Vaccinating susceptible populations quickly and safely is vital during a pandemic. Mass vaccination programs using a drive-through method have been shown to reach large numbers of people efficiently during vaccine campaigns.
Methods:
We performed a quantitative, cross-sectional study analyzing data collected by the COVID-19 mass vaccination program conducted by Louisiana State University Health Shreveport (LSUSH).
Results:
Between December 2020 and September 2021, the vaccination program administered 90,655 COVID-19 vaccines. Among those who received at least the first dose of the vaccine, there were 21,700 men and 28,269 women; 22,820 were ≥60 years of age; 28,031 identified as Caucasian, 19,249 as African American, 47,916 as non-Hispanic, and most of them reported that they had not tested positive for COVID-19 before vaccination.
Discussion:
The LSUHS vaccination center served people from different regions within Louisiana as well as those from outside Louisiana. Vaccination is a crucial public health measure in the fight against the COVID-19 pandemic.
Conclusions:
Our study showed that the mass vaccination program conducted by LSUHS had a considerable positive impact on communities in Northwest Louisiana. This drive-through method is an effective strategy with which to reach a significant number of people during a pandemic.
Keywords: COVID-19, Coronavirus, Vaccines, Mass vaccination, Drive-through
Introduction
In March 2020, the World Health Organization announced the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic.1 As of January 21, 2020, the United States has reported more than 40 million cases of COVID-19.2 Louisiana experienced one of the highest rates of incidence and mortality in the United States, with 717,224 cases and 13,120 deaths.2 Vaccination is key to ending the COVID-19 pandemic worldwide. Studies have estimated that to achieve herd immunity, at least 60–75% of the population must be vaccinated.3, 4 In September 2021, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported that 54% of people in the United States were fully vaccinated.5 However, in Louisiana, although 50.6% of the population had received at least one dose of the vaccine as of September of 2021, the percentage of the population that was fully vaccinated was lower.5
While vaccines against COVID-19 are available, resistance to vaccination, and to the COVID-19 vaccine in particular, requires specific strategies to increase acceptance of the vaccine. Mass vaccination programs using a drive-through method have been proven to be one of the most efficient ways to reach a significant number of people during vaccine campaigns.6–9 Previous studies have shown that the drive-through approach is both more feasible and more successful compared to traditional walk-in clinics, hospitals, and pharmacies.10–13 By keeping people in their vehicles, it reduces the risk of infection, allows vaccines to be administered more quickly, and helps maintain privacy.14, 15 A study conducted among adults and children during vaccination for influenza showed that effective strategies for mass vaccination are essential to respond to pandemics quickly and more safely.16, 17 Nevertheless, mass vaccination using a drive-through method requires careful and comprehensive planning, staff training, structural organization, adequate supplies, and sufficient preparation to ensure the effectiveness and efficacy of vaccination uptake.
In March 2020, Louisiana State University Health Shreveport (LSUHS) established the Emerging Viral Threat Lab to address pandemic needs in Northwest Louisiana. The Emerging Viral Threat Lab initially performed COVID-19 tests in the general population, including outreach to medically underserved populations in Shreveport and those in nursing homes. In December 2020, the Louisiana Board of Regents and LSU Board of Supervisors recognized the Emerging Viral Threat Lab as a Center of Excellence (CEEVT). After the development of the COVID-19 vaccines, the CEEVT developed and implemented a drive-through method to vaccinate people in Northwest Louisiana and other nearby areas.18
The goals of this study are to describe how LSUHS chose to distribute and administer vaccines during the COVID-19 pandemic, describe the sociodemographic characteristics of the population vaccinated during the mass vaccination program, and make recommendations that would improve the public health response to future infectious disease pandemics.
Methodology
We performed a quantitative, cross-sectional study analyzing data collected by the COVID-19 mass vaccination program conducted by LSUSH (specifically, from the period comprising December 2020 to September 2021). The program was designed and directed by the joint leadership of the CEEVT at LSUSH, the Louisiana Office of Public Health Region 7 (OPH-R7), and the Louisiana National Guard. The mass vaccination sites were located at the North Campus Extension (NCE), a former car dealership owned by LSUHS, and at the Louisiana State Fairgrounds in Shreveport, the third-largest city in Louisiana (located in the northwest of the state). The vaccination team also performed community outreach in other parishes in Louisiana.
Louisiana is located in the south-central region of the United States. It is the only state with political subdivisions termed parishes, equivalent to counties. The northwestern portion of Louisiana is culturally and economically attached to northeast Texas and southwest Arkansas. Combined, they comprise an area called the Ark-La-Tex. With a population of approximately 199,311 in 2020, Shreveport is the region’s largest city, serving as the economic and geographic center, as well as the principal hub for the Shreveport–Bossier City metropolitan area and other communities in northwestern Louisiana. Northwest Louisiana comprises 13 parishes: Bienville, Bossier, Caddo, Claiborne, DeSoto, Jackson, Lincoln, Natchitoches, Red River, Sabine, Union, Winn, and Webster.19, 20
Study data were collected and managed using REDCap electronic data capture tools hosted at LSUHS. REDCap (Research Electronic Data Capture) is a secure, web-based software platform designed to support data capture for research studies.21, 22 The data were exported to Tableau and tabulated by the CEEVT Lab IT team.
The CEEVT and the Office of Communications & Public Relations at LSUHS worked together to develop and implement a communication plan for the COVID-19 mass vaccination campaign to ensure widespread awareness. The CEEVT created the vaccination schedule and identified the target audiences for vaccination. At the same time, the Office of Communications & Public Relations developed a news release for weekly distribution to various networks and communities throughout Northwest Louisiana via local newspapers, television news stations, radio stations, community influencers, and the LSUHS website and social media.
Our vaccination team included LSUHS physicians, nurses, medical students, and other students from Bossier Parish Community College (BPCC) and Southern University at Shreveport (SUSLA), with additional support provided by retired physicians and nurses. In addition, traffic control for drive-by testing and vaccinations was set up and operated by the Louisiana National Guard (Fig. 1).
Figure 1. Photograph of traffic flow for two vaccination tents.
Traffic flow for two vaccination tents at the mass vaccination site in Shreveport, LA
Source: Photo by Nathaniel G. Lankford, LSUHS
The mass vaccination program began in December 2020, focusing first on healthcare workers and members of the population above 65 years of age. Following subsequent CDC recommendations, the campaign was then expanded to other population groups.
Vaccines were performed using a drive-through method. The vaccination site was organized in tents that included drive-through lanes. Participants remained in their cars throughout the entire process, including 20 minutes in an observation area to monitor adverse reactions following vaccination (Fig. 2). At the beginning of the campaign, only the Pfizer vaccine was available, but in mid-February 2021, both the Moderna and Janssen (Johnson & Johnson) vaccines became available at our vaccination sites. Manufacturing recommendations were followed at the vaccination sites, along with other safety considerations, including ensuring that staff with expertise in infectious diseases were present. Both sites were equipped with emergency kits, needle disposal (biohazardous waste containers), and personal protective equipment (PPE). In addition, staff were trained how to deliver vaccinations safely following infection control protocols and how to use social distancing measures to decrease the risk associated with COVID-19 infection.
Figure 2. Diagram of Set Up for Vaccination Tent.
Diagram of the set up for the vaccination tent at the mass vaccination site.
Before vaccination, participants completed an online registration form, available at the LSUHS website.23 Participants were asked to drive to the North Campus Extension (NCE) or the Louisiana State Fairgrounds in Shreveport, LA. After checking in and signing a consent form, participants remained in their vehicles and received the vaccine through the car window or door. After moving to an observation area, they remained in their vehicles for 20 minutes until released by the staff.
The variables collected in the pre-vaccination forms were age, sex, race, ethnicity, state of residence, zip code, state region, COVID-19 infection before vaccination, history of severe reaction to a vaccine, and use of medications that suppress the immune response system. The analyses used absolute frequencies to assess the number of vaccinated people at the vaccination sites.
Results
Between December 2020 and September 2021, the mass vaccination program administered 90,655 vaccines to the general population. The sociodemographic characteristics of the people who received at least the first dose of the vaccine were: 21,700 men and 28,269 women; 22,820 aged ≥60 years of age; and 28031 identified as Caucasian and 47,916 as non-Hispanic. Most reported not having tested positive for COVID-19 before vaccination. Most participants chose the Pfizer vaccine, followed by the Janssen vaccine (Table 1).
Table 1.
Demographics of the population who received the COVID-19 vaccine at the CEEVT
| Variables | Vaccination |
|||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| First dose | Second dose | Third dose | P | |
|
| ||||
| Number of vaccines | 49,969 | 38,480 | 2,206 | |
|
| ||||
| Sex | 0.000 | |||
| Male | 21,700 | 16,173 | 958 | |
| Female | 28,269 | 22,307 | 1,248 | |
| Age | 0.000 | |||
| 6 – 17 | 3,651 | 2,885 | 4 | |
| 18 – 29 | 4,863 | 3,422 | 26 | |
| 30 – 39 | 4,883 | 3,402 | 49 | |
| 40 – 49 | 6,024 | 4,256 | 76 | |
| 50 – 59 | 7,727 | 5,486 | 215 | |
| 60 – 69 | 11,467 | 9,004 | 553 | |
| 70 or more | 11,353 | 10,025 | 1,283 | |
| Race | 0.000 | |||
| Caucasian | 28,031 | 21,760 | 1,565 | |
| Black/African American | 19,249 | 14,712 | 566 | |
| Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander | 81 | 58 | 4 | |
| American Indian/Alaska Native | 365 | 249 | 12 | |
| Asian | 966 | 823 | 43 | |
| Not reported | 1,190 | 784 | 16 | |
| Ethnicity | 0.000 | |||
| Non-Hispanic | 47,916 | 37,108 | 2,166 | |
| Hispanic or Latino | 2,053 | 1,372 | 40 | |
| Had COVID-19 prior vaccine | 0.000 | |||
| Yes | 4,759 | 3,166 | 43 | |
| No | 40,081 | 29,991 | 859 | |
| Not reported | 2,675 | 1,976 | 122 | |
| Type of vaccine by manufacturer * | ||||
| Pfizer | 40,172 | 35,726 | 2,206 | |
| Janssen | 7,321 | 19 | - | |
| Moderna | 2,476 | 2,036 | - | |
At the beginning of the mass vaccination campaign, only the Pfizer vaccine was available. In February 2020, the Moderna and Jannsen vaccines became available at our vaccination centers as well.
Table 2 shows that the center served people from different regions in Louisiana. Due to the vaccination center’s location, most people who received the vaccine lived in Region 7 of Louisiana. Among those who live in Region 7, we administered 82,741 vaccines.
Table 2.
Number of vaccines administered by the CEEVT program by regions in Louisiana
| Regions | Vaccination dose |
|||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| First dose | Second dose | Third dose | Total | |
|
| ||||
| Region 1 | 54 | 42 | 7 | 103 |
| Region 2 | 51 | 40 | 0 | 91 |
| Region 3 | 9 | 8 | 1 | 18 |
| Region 4 | 49 | 29 | 0 | 78 |
| Region 5 | 17 | 8 | 0 | 25 |
| Region 6 | 93 | 61 | 0 | 154 |
| Region 7 | 46,974 | 34,756 | 1,011 | 82,741 |
| Region 8 | 255 | 186 | 5 | 446 |
| Region 9 | 13 | 3 | 0 | 16 |
The center also had an impact on different parishes in Louisiana. Caddo Parish (where Shreveport is located) had the highest number of people vaccinated, of whom 31,318 received at least the first dose of the vaccine, followed by 11,373 from Bossier Parish, 2,498 from De Soto Parish, and 1,337 from Webster Parish (Fig. 3).
Figure 3. Number of Vaccinations by the Parish from Region 7 in Louisiana.
This shows the number of first and second doses of the COVID-19 vaccine administered by parish in Region 7 in Louisiana.
Vaccination for COVID-19 varied depending on when it was administered. Figure 4 shows that the center administered 14,017 first doses of the vaccine in March 2021. This figure also shows a significant increase in the number of people getting vaccinated during August and September 2021.
Figure 4. Number of Vaccines Administered by Month at the mass vaccination site, Shreveport, LA.
This shows the number of vaccines administered monthly at the mass vaccination site in Shreveport, Louisiana.
Discussion
This study shows that the mass vaccination program conducted by LSUHS led to dramatic decreases in the incidence of COVID-19 in northwestern Louisiana. The drive-through method used for mass vaccination successfully achieved efficient service and operational flow9. Detailed planning, preparation, careful execution, meticulous supervision, and standardized monitoring are critical to effectively running any large-scale vaccination program and allowing it to achieve the highest possible immunization coverage.24 Having a vaccine with high clinical efficacy and real-world effectiveness is one of the best ways to achieve vaccination of a high number of people and reduce the disparities related to infection control.
Reaching high vaccination coverage rates, in addition to decreasing cases of disease, can decrease the circulation of infectious agents in communities and reduce the risk of infection among susceptible individuals.25, 26 To control the COVID-19 pandemic, it is essential to ensure global access to COVID-19 vaccines and that people are willing to become vaccinated quickly enough to mitigate the risk of developing vaccine-resistant mutations.27 Vaccine hesitancy has been shown to be a significant obstacle to achieving a high vaccination rate.28 Identifying the factors associated with acceptance and hesitancy concerning COVID-19 vaccination is critical to the design of strategies that improve vaccine coverage across populations. Some studies have shown that COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy is higher among young people (18 – 39 years), women, African Americans, those with lower income/lower socio-economic status, and in those with less education.28–30 However, our study showed that approximately 38% of the individuals who received the COVID-19 vaccine were African American. Our data suggest that mass immunization programs using a drive-through method are an excellent way to ensure broader access to vaccination and increase vaccine uptake among minority groups.31
In December 2020, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) for two messenger RNA vaccines, those manufactured by Pfizer and Moderna. In February 2021, the FDA issued an EUA for the Janssen (Johnson & Johnson) vaccine 32, 33. Misinformation disseminated among the general population of the United States about the types of vaccines available had a distinct impact on vaccination uptake34. A communication plan providing correct information about the types of vaccines available is crucial to increasing public acceptance of vaccination. Previous studies found that people with higher education levels were more likely to accept the COVID-19 vaccine, suggesting the need to provide transparent information and develop community-appropriate communication strategies prior to vaccination campaigns35, 36. Despite concerns related to the type of vaccine, our study showed that those concerns did not prevent a significant portion of the population from getting vaccinated.
A drive-through vaccination model also has a distinct advantage during an outbreak of a communicable disease such as COVID-19 because it reduces the risk of transmission in the unvaccinated population. Moreover, a drive-through model is not limited by the space restrictions imposed when trying to meet multiple public health objectives (e.g., COVID vaccination and medical care) within the same setting (e.g., a single hospital or clinic). The burden on the healthcare system to complete vaccination can interfere with the provision of non-COVID-related care, particularly when conducted in the hospital setting.37
Our study had some limitations. First, we had limited data concerning participant knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes towards vaccination and scant data for pre-existing conditions. Second, few, if any, similar studies related to mass vaccination campaigns have been done in Louisiana or in other states in the United States. We also had some physical and infrastructural limitations, such as interruptions to internet access, disruption by inclement weather (not unique to drive-throughs), and limited access to the drive-through for those who do not drive.
Implementation of a mass vaccination campaign combines a wide variety of actions and specific recommendations. Before approaching people about vaccination, it is necessary to create communication strategies that deliver clear, correct information about the vaccine. These should emphasize the vaccine’s benefits to improve adherence to vaccination, particularly when more than one injection is needed. In addition, the campaign logistics should be explained to avoid crowding and possible shortages of vaccines. Armed with these strategies, it is time to engage with the community. To successfully mobilize the population and increase vaccine uptake, it is recommended to reach out to various sectors, such as religious groups, neighborhood associations, minority groups, non-profit organizations, private businesses, and other agencies, including local and state government. Detailed, deliberate planning for and continuous focus on the logistical supply, resupply, and adequate storage of vaccines is critical to successful operations. Safety is paramount, and staffing with dedicated and trained professionals (e.g., pharmacists, environmental health scientists, infection control professionals) is required to ensure that vaccine storage remains in compliance with manufacturers’ guidelines, ensure the availability of sterile syringes, and further ensure proper disposal of the biohazardous waste generated by the site (e.g., used needles). Lead staff members should be chosen carefully, since they will organize the practice’s vaccination campaign. The number of sufficiently trained personnel required to deliver immunizations safely should be based on the population size being served. Such an undertaking is vast and complicated and could fail at many points. Our study shows that it can be done successfully and that it makes a difference.
Conclusion
Vaccination is a crucial public health measure in the fight against the COVID-19 pandemic. Despite the challenges of planning for and operating a drive-through mass vaccination program, our study showed that the LSUHS vaccination campaign considerably increased community vaccination rates in Northwest Louisiana. Our experience can help guide the planning and development of future vaccination campaigns to increase vaccination uptake and reach a significant number of susceptible populations during a pandemic.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank all the members of the Center of Excellence for Emerging Viral Threats laboratory, Louisiana State University Health Shreveport, and the Louisiana Department of Health in Shreveport for their support during the mass vaccination campaign. We also would like to acknowledge the assistance of Elliott Freeman, writing librarian of the Louisiana State University Health Shreveport, for reviewing and editing this article.
Funding
This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health grant SARS-CoV-2 Genomic Surveillance in North Louisiana. Research Award P20 GM121307 to C.G.K. This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health grant Center for Applied Immunology and Pathological Processes (CAIPP) Research Award P20GM134974-01A1 to A.D.Y..
Footnotes
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Ethics approval
Not applicable
Consent to participate
Not applicable
Consent for publication
All authors have approved the final version of the manuscript being submitted
Code availability
Not applicable
Contributor Information
Deborah Gurgel Smith, Department of Public Health, Louisiana State University Health Shreveport, Shreveport, LA, USA.
John Anthony Vanchiere, Department of Pediatrics and Department of Infectious Diseases, Louisiana State University Health Shreveport, Shreveport, LA, U.S.A..
Michelle Raley, Center of Excellence for Emerging Viral Threats, Louisiana State University Health Shreveport, Louisiana, U.S.A..
Andrew David Yurochko, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Louisiana State University Health Shreveport, Shreveport, LA, U.S.A..
Mohammad Alfrad Nobel Bhuiyan, Department of Medicine, Louisiana State University Health Shreveport, Louisiana, U.S.A..
Kevin Sean Murnane, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology & Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry, Louisiana State University Health Shreveport, Louisiana, U.S.A..
Rona Scott, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Louisiana State University Health Shreveport, Shreveport, LA, U.S.A..
Jeremy Kamil, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Louisiana State University Health Shreveport, Shreveport, LA, U.S.A..
Jill Rush-Kolodzey, Department of Public Health, Louisiana State University Health Shreveport, Shreveport, LA, USA.
Martha Whyte, Louisiana Office of Public Health, Shreveport, Louisiana, U.S.A..
Kenneth Densmore, Center of Excellence for Emerging Viral Threats, Louisiana State University Health Shreveport, Louisiana, U.S.A..
Maarten Van Diest, Center of Excellence for Emerging Viral Threats, Louisiana State University Health Shreveport, Louisiana, U.S.A..
Christopher Kevil, Department of Pathology and Translational Pathobiology, Louisiana State University Health Shreveport, Louisiana, U.S.A..
Availability of data and material
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.
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Associated Data
This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.
Data Availability Statement
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.