Abstract
目的
综述 P75 神经营养因子受体(P75 neurotrophin receptor,P75NTR)研究进展,明确其作用机制,探讨其与骨折不愈合的关系,为骨折不愈合的治疗提供新思路。
方法
广泛查阅近年国内外与 P75NTR 相关的文献,分析总结其作用机制及骨折不愈合形成的病理因素。
结果
P75NTR 在骨折不愈合组织中表达,且能导致纤维蛋白降解缺陷、抑制血管生成,而后两者在骨折不愈合的发病中起重要作用。
结论
在骨折不愈合的治疗中,是否可通过阻断 P75NTR 的上述作用达到治疗目的,尚有待进一步研究证实。
Keywords: P75神经营养因子受体, 骨折不愈合, 血管生成
Abstract
Objective
To review the research progress of P75 neurotrophin receptor (P75NTR) so as to clarify its mechanism, and to explore its relationship with nonunion so as to provide a new idea for the treatment of nonunion.
Methods
The related domestic and foreign literature of P75NTR in recent years was extensively reviewed, summarized, and analyzed to find out the mechanism of action of P75NTR and the pathological factors of nonunion formation.
Results
P75NTR can express in nonunion tissues and lead to defect of fibrin degradation and inhibition of angiogenesis, which play an important role in the pathogenesis of nonunion.
Conclusion
It needs to be confirmed by further study whether the purpose of treating nonunion can be achieved by blocking the effects described above of P75NTR.
Keywords: P75 neurotrophin receptor, nonunion, angiogenesis
P75 神经营养因子受体(P75 neurotrophin receptor,P75NTR)是一个相对分子质量为 75×103的糖蛋白,属于 TNF 超家族,它能和所有 NGF 及神经营养因子前体蛋白结合,调控广泛的细胞功能,包括细胞生长、分化、增殖、凋亡、神经和突触重构。正因为其矛盾的生物学功能,近年来逐渐成为研究热点。骨折不愈合是骨科治疗难点,本文通过分析总结 P75NTR 的作用机制及骨折不愈合形成的病理因素,探讨其二者之间的关系,旨在为骨折不愈合的治疗提供新思路。
1. P75NTR 的存在形式、结构及通路
P75NTR 的存在形式有两种:单体和三聚体。和其他 TNF 一样,P75NTR 主要以三聚体的形式存在。单体和三聚体共存于细胞表面,三聚体不需要活化,但是单体能诱导细胞形态学的改变。P75NTR 的活性主要由其单体状态和水平控制,其单体形态为其相互矛盾的生物学活性提供了基础[1],具体机制目前仍不清楚。
P75NTR 有两个主要的结构域(细胞外的富半胱氨酸结构域和细胞内的死亡结构域)和一个跨膜区(高保留跨膜半胱氨酸残基)。Tanaka 等[2]研究表明,NGF 和 NGF 前体(pro-NGF)诱导的 P75NTR 构象改变取决于其死亡结构域和高保留跨膜半胱氨酸残基,不管在体内还是体外, P75NTR 诱导的神经元死亡均需要死亡结构域和高保留跨膜半胱氨酸残基的存在。
和其他死亡受体一样,P75NTR 的富半胱氨酸结构域结合 TNF 受体相关蛋白 6(tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6,TRAF6),TRAF6 能活化 NF-κB 和 c-Jun 氨基末端激酶(c-Jun N-terminal kinase,JNK)[3];死亡结构域与鸟嘌呤核苷酸解离抑制因子(Rho GDP dissociation inhibition,RhoGDI)和受体相互作用蛋白 2(receptor-interacting protein2,RIP2)激酶结合,RhoGDI 控制 RhoA 的活化,RIP2 激酶能活化 NF-κB 和 JNK[4]。Shu 等[5]研究表明,半胱氨酸天冬氨酸蛋白酶 3(Caspase-3)相关的 Caspase 途径和 Gi 蛋白-JNK-NADPH 氧化酶途径参与了 P75NTR 调节的细胞凋亡。
2. P75NTR 与酪氨酸激酶受体(tyrosine kinase receptor,Trk)
NGF 通过结合细胞表面的两种受体(Trks和P75NTR)来调节其生物学活性。 Trks 是在结构上相关的一类跨膜受体络氨酸激酶,能与神经营养因子以高亲和力和高特异性相结合,结合方式:NGF 特异性结合 TrkA,脑源性神经营养因子(brain derived neurotrophic factor,BDNF)和神经营养因子 4(neurotrophic factor 4,NT4)或 NT5 结合 TrkB,NT3 结合 TrkC。在一些特定环境下,NT3 亦能以较低的效率结合 TrkA 和 TrkB。神经营养因子结合 Trks 受体后能活化磷脂酰肌醇 3 激酶、磷脂酶 C 及丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(mitogen-activated protein kinases,MAPKs)信号通路,调节细胞的生长和存活。
所有神经营养因子都能与 P75NTR 以低亲和力结合,且 P75NTR 能增加神经营养因子与 Trks 受体的亲和力。Rahbek 等[6]研究表明,在 NGF 的刺激下,P75NTR 能与 TrkA 形成三聚体来增加 TrkA 配体的特异性和亲和力。
Trks 表达水平下降时,P75NTR 与神经营养因子前体蛋白结合诱导凋亡通路,导致细胞的凋亡。那么 P75NTR 介导的凋亡通路是否和 Trks 有关呢?一些学者对其进行了研究。Majdan 等[7]研究表明,p75NTR 调节的凋亡通路和 TrkA 的活化与否无关,其主要和 NGF 的蛋白表达水平有关,NGF 蛋白水平较低的情况下,P75NTR 能够关闭 TrkA 存活通路,启动凋亡通路;而足量的 NGF 能够关闭 P75NTR 介导的凋亡通路,激活 TrkA 存活通路。De la Cruz-Morcillo 等[8]的细胞实验研究表明,沉默 P75NTR 或使用 P75NTR 抗体的阻断剂能阻断 pro-BDNF/P75NTR 调节的凋亡通路,诱导细胞生长和增殖,这种机制同样不依赖 TrkB 的活化。
以上研究表明,P75NTR 调节的细胞生长与 Trks 的活化有关,其调节的细胞凋亡与 Trks 的活化无关。
3. P75NTR 与分拣蛋白(Sortilin)
成熟的神经营养因子优先结合 Trk 蛋白受体促进细胞生存、生长和突触强化,神经营养因子前体蛋白优先结合 P75NTR 诱导凋亡、减弱生长和弱化突触信号。一般来说,神经营养因子和神经营养因子前体蛋白在功能上是相互对立的,神经营养因子前体蛋白会优先选择与 P75NTR 结合,Schweigreiter[9]在培养的表达 TrkA 和 P75NTR 的交感神经细胞中发现,pro-NGF 通过 P75NTR 信号通路引起细胞的程序性死亡,而 NGF 通过 TrkA-P75NTR 信号通路促进细胞生存。但并非所有表达 P75NTR 的细胞都对神经营养因子前体蛋白敏感。Sortilin 又名神经降压素受体,它能够为 P75NTR 与神经营养因子前体蛋白结合提供基础。神经营养因子前体蛋白结合 P75NTR 和 Sortilin 受体复合体后启动凋亡通路[10],而敲除 Sortilin 可以抑制这一凋亡通路。Nykjaer 等[11]发现在 Sortilin 基因敲除的小鼠中神经细胞的死亡明显减少;Schweigreiter[9]在培养的细胞系中用神经降压素阻断 Sortilin,均能阻止 pro-NGF 和 pro-BDNF 诱导的细胞凋亡。以上研究表明,P75NTR/Sortilin 相互作用是细胞死亡的基础。
P75NTR 能与 TrkA、TrkB、TrkC 及非神经营养因子受体 Sortilin 结合,这些结合为 P75NTR 提供了广泛的细胞功能:神经营养因子通过与 P75NTR/Trk 复合物结合,促进细胞的生长;神经营养因子前体蛋白与 P75NTR/Sortilin 结合促进细胞的凋亡。
4. P75NTR 对细胞的影响
一些学者对 P75NTR 在损伤后的表达情况进行了研究。在正常骨折进程中,P75NTR 表达在骨折后迅速升高,然后随着骨折愈合逐渐下降,至骨折完全愈合时其表达接近零,且 P75NTR 在正常组织中不表达[12-13]。临床脑出血后 6 h 内,血肿周围脑组织 P75NTR 及 mRNA 蛋白表达水平即上升,6~24 h 继续升高,24~72 h 达高峰,72 h 后仍维持在较高水平[14]。损伤后为何 P75NTR 的表达会升高,仍是一个未知的待研究领域,有以下几种可能:P75NTR 通过增加 Trk 的活化效率提高损伤神经的存活;为了限制炎症, P75NTR 靶向启动凋亡通路清除受损细胞;为细胞的再生长提供支持环境。
P75NTR 对细胞的作用是促进细胞生长、增殖,还是促进细胞凋亡,目前仍存在争议。Meeker 等[15]通过总结分析文献认为 P75NTR 在保护和恢复神经系统中起重要作用;Tomita 等[16]通过将 P75NTR 缺陷的雪旺细胞移植入外周神经损伤后的裸鼠模型发现,损伤后 7 ~ 10 周,P75NTR 敲除组裸鼠的运动功能恢复显著低于正常组,说明 P75NTR 在雪旺细胞中的表达对髓鞘的再生有重要意义,敲除 P75NTR 后运动神经元的恢复明显降低。Zanin 等[17]研究表明,在缺少 P75NTR 的情况下,小脑颗粒细胞祖细胞持续增殖超过正常周期,增殖持续至成年期,导致小脑异常增大并伴随运动缺陷。此外,还有学者[18]研究表明,P75NTR 参与调节 BMP-7 诱导的交感神经枝状生长。
另外一些学者则认为 P75NTR 影响细胞的生长、分化,抑制 P75NTR 后能减少细胞的死亡。Tazi 等[19]应用 P75NGFR 的拮抗剂阻断 NGF 与 P75NGFR 的结合,发现可诱导 TrkA 自身磷酸化和细胞分化,从而促进细胞生长。Matusica 等[20]发现,在肌萎缩性脊髓侧索硬化症小鼠模型中应用 P75NTR 的抑制剂 c29,不仅能增加脊髓运动神经元的存活,而且可延缓疾病发生。Sebastiani 等[21]发现 P75NTR 的神经营养因子结合位点发生突变能强烈抑制创伤后细胞的死亡。Delbary-Gossart 等[22]发现一种哌嗪类复合物 EVT901,其通过与富半胱氨酸结构域直接作用来干扰 P75NTR 寡聚化,从而减少 pro-NGF 与 P75NTR 的结合,阻断 pro-NGF 在 P75NTR 阳性细胞中诱导的细胞凋亡。
在损伤初期,P75NTR 的表达升高能增强 Trk 活性,促进细胞生长,清除受损细胞,限制炎症发展,此时总体趋势有利于机体恢复。如果此时对 P75NTR 予以阻断,则中断了其上述效果,对机体恢复不利。此外,在机体未受损前就沉默或阻断甚至敲除 P75NTR,机体损伤后 P75NTR 不能及时升高,亦不能起到促进细胞生长、清除受损细胞和控制炎症等作用;而当创伤恢复后,P75NTR 若仍持续表达,此时对 P75NTR 予以阻断,则应能抑制 P75NTR 介导的凋亡通路,起到对机体有利的作用。
5. P75NTR 对血管的影响
P75NTR 在对血管的调节中亦发挥非常重要的作用,具体机制目前仍不十分明确,可能与 P75NTR 损害内皮细胞的功能和促进其凋亡有关。Caporali 等[23]报道,P75NTR 的表达损害培养的内皮细胞和内皮祖细胞活性,通过 VEGF-A/Akt/内皮型一氧化氮合酶/NO 信号通路抑制血管生成。Shanab 等[24]报道 pro-NGF 的过表达通过活化 JNK、p38 MAPK 和细胞凋亡的标志蛋白 PARP 降解产物(cleaved-PARP)诱导内皮细胞凋亡,用小干扰 RNA 沉默 P75NTR 能恢复 NGF 和 TrkA 的活化,阻止内皮细胞凋亡。Twiss 等[13]研究表明,NGF 和 BDNF 及其特异性受体 TrkA 和 TrkB 在大动脉内膜增生中起作用,但当 P75NTR 活化后,可诱导血管平滑肌细胞的凋亡。
P75NTR 在健康组织中是缺失的,在病理条件下如糖尿病和动脉粥样硬化中其水平是升高的;糖尿病促进 P75NTR 在缺血肢体微血管内皮细胞的表达,P75NTR 促进内皮细胞的凋亡和降低其功能[25]。Graiani 等[26]研究表明,在糖尿病伤口肉芽组织中,超过 90%的凋亡内皮细胞内 P75NTR 表达阳性,影响糖尿病血管的修复,局部应用 NGF 通过提高内皮细胞再生的潜能可加速伤口愈合。在 P75NTR 基因敲除小鼠中,术后缺血血管的生成亦能得到明显改善[16]。此外,P75NTR 还参与抑制脉络膜血管[27]、肺血管[28]的再生。
6. P75NTR 对纤维蛋白的影响
P75NTR 能抑制纤维蛋白的降解,其通过下调丝氨酸蛋白酶、组织型纤溶酶原激活物和上调纤溶酶原激活物抑制剂 1 来限制纤维蛋白降解[29]。P75NTR 在非神经元细胞(内皮细胞、血管平滑肌细胞、肝星状细胞)中的表达上调能引起动脉粥样硬化[30]、黑色素瘤形成[31]、肺部炎症[32]和肝脏疾病[33],而这些疾病都与纤维素的降解缺陷有关。
7. P75NTR 与骨折不愈合
骨折不愈合的形成原因目前仍不十分清楚。一些学者[34-35]对骨折不愈合患者的组织切片进行分析,发现骨折不愈合断端主要是纤维样组织,无骨组织,纤维样组织离体培养后可见其中含成纤维细胞样细胞。虽然以上研究证明了在骨折不愈合组织中存在大量纤维蛋白,但纤维蛋白在骨折不愈合的发病中起什么作用尚在研究中。Cole 等[36]在小鼠模型中发现,骨折局部的纤维蛋白持续沉积能直接刺激破骨细胞生成,导致严重的骨质疏松,影响骨折愈合。Yuasa 等[37]通过在纤维蛋白原和纤维蛋白酶原基因沉默的小鼠股骨骨折模型中发现,持续的纤维蛋白沉积能抑制软骨内血管生成和成骨作用,影响骨折愈合。
既然 P75NTR 能导致纤维蛋白降解缺陷,那么其在骨折不愈合中是否表达,其与骨折不愈合的关系如何,学者们进行了进一步研究。Ko 等[38]在糖尿病引起的骨折不愈合中发现了 P75NTR 的高表达;Karnes 等[39]发现 P75NTR 表达持续升高影响骨折愈合,甚至造成骨折不愈合。此外,亦有学者对血管生成对骨折愈合的影响进行了研究。Maes 等[40]研究表明,在骨折愈合过程中,血管生成对成骨细胞基质矿化的调节是必不可少的;软骨内血管的形成能促进成骨细胞分化,同时成骨细胞可通过血管到达骨折部位,阻断骨折局部的血管则能抑制骨化中心的形成,影响骨折愈合。
P75NTR 既可在骨折不愈合组织中表达,又能导致纤维蛋白降解缺陷、抑制血管生成,而后两者在骨折不愈合的发病中起重要作用。因此,是否可通过阻断 P75NTR 的这一作用达到治疗骨折不愈合的目的,尚有待进一步研究证实。本综述为骨折不愈合的治疗提供了新思路。
Funding Statement
国家自然科学基金资助项目(81660366、81160223);广西自然科学基金资助项目(2015GXNSFAA139117)
National Natural Science Foundation of China (81660366, 81160223); Natural Science Foundation of Guangxi Province (2015GXNSFAA139117)
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