Table 3.

Comparison of the oxidative stress biomarkers’ blood levels in autistic patients with a mutual therapeutic biomarker impact of the SGLT2 inhibitors. ↑—increase, ↓—decrease.

ASD Biomarkers	Result	Reference	SGLT2 Inhibitor Name/Subject of Study	Result	Reference Number
GSH	Statistically significantly lower level of GSH in the ASD group than in the control group.	[148,149,150,151]	Empagliflozin/Wistar rats	↑ GSH	[103]
CAT	Lower CAT activity in the erythrocytes of autistic patients than in the healthy controls.	[152,153]	Empagliflozin/Wistar rats	↑ CAT	[103]
GPX	GPX activity in the erythrocytes is significantly lower in the ASD group than in the control group after the meta-analysis.	[152,154,155,156,157]	Dapagliflozin/Wistar rats	↑ GPX	[158]
TNF-α	ASD children produced more TNF-α than those obtained from the control.	[159,160,161]	Empagliflozin/ApoE-/-mice	↓ TNF-α	[83]
IL-6	Autistic mice displayed elevated IL-6 in the brain.	[155,156,157,158,159,160,161,162]	Empagliflozin/ApoE-/-mice	↓ IL-6	[83]
Caspase-3	Assessed the active caspase-3 levels and determined the significant elevation in children with ASD.	[156,157,158,159,160,161,162,163,164,165,166]	Empagliflozin/Wistar rats	↓ caspase 3	[102]
HIF-1α	Serum HIF-1α levels were borderline significantly lower in the ASD group.	[167]	Empagliflozin/Wistar rats	↑ HIF-1α,	[102]
Aβ	Severe ASD patients produced beta-amyloid at twice more than the control group and four times more than the mild ASD group.	[168,169]	Empagliflozin/APP/PS1xdb/db mice	↓ Aβ	[101]