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The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences logoLink to The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences
. 2022 Jan 29;77(11):2126–2136. doi: 10.1093/geronb/gbac016

Romantic Relationship Status, Quality, and Depressive Symptoms Among Middle-Aged and Older Black Women

Stephanie L Hanus 1,✉, Leslie G Simons 2, Man-Kit Lei 3, Ryon J Cobb 4, Ronald L Simons 5
Editor: Tamara Baker
PMCID: PMC9683486  PMID: 35091742

Abstract

Objectives

Past research has established a link between romantic relationships and depressive symptoms among adults, including those in later life. There is, however, still a lack of evidence regarding whether romantic relationship status or relationship quality is a better predictor of psychological well-being among middle-aged and older Black adult women.

Methods

The present study draws on data from the Family and Community Health Study, a multisite, longitudinal survey of health and psychosocial experiences of Black families, to examine how relationship status and quality relate to depressive symptoms among middle-aged and older Black adult women (N = 571). A series of negative binomial regression models, with 95% confidence intervals and internal moderators, were used to assess the research questions.

Results

Middle-aged and older Black women in married, cohabiting, and dating relationships who reported higher levels of relationship quality had a lower likelihood of depressive symptoms than those who reported lower levels of relationship quality or who did not report being in any romantic relationship when controlling for baseline depressive symptoms. The findings from our study indicate that relationship quality is a better predictor of depressive symptoms than relationship status.

Discussion

Our findings extend the body of literature on the impact of romantic relationships on individual well-being and provide compelling evidence that such relationships, particularly those of high quality, are significantly associated with lower depressive symptoms among middle-aged and older Black women.

Keywords: Depressive symptoms, Mental health, Race/ethnicity, Romantic relationships

Depressive symptoms among middle-aged and older Black adults are a significant mental health problem among this population (Bailey et al., 2019). Research suggests that depressive symptoms are more chronic, disabling, and untreated among older Black individuals relative to their White counterparts (Bailey et al., 2019) and that older Black women suffer from depressive symptoms at higher rates than Black men (Barry et al., 2008). Given the anticipated growth of older populations, and specifically, older Black women, the number of Black women who suffer from depression and/or subclinical depression is expected to increase. Undoubtedly, these increases will lead to higher costs for Medicare, Medicaid, and other publicly funded programs. Thus, identifying protective factors for depressive symptoms related to romantic relationships has implications for individuals and society.

Past research has demonstrated that romantic relationships are associated with depression (Addo & Lichter, 2013; Dunlop et al., 2003; Jang et al., 2005; Lincoln & Chae, 2010; Schoenborn, 2004; Wright & Brown, 2017). This is true for relationship status (Addo & Lichter, 2013; Dunlop et al., 2003; Schoenborn, 2004; Wright & Brown, 2017), as well as relationship quality (Jang et al., 2005; Lincoln & Chae, 2010; Zambrano et al., 2021). Little research has examined the relative importance of relationship status versus relationship quality. Furthermore, there has been less attention on the romantic relationship of older adults, particularly among Black American women. This is an important omission because research suggests that Black women experience a unique dating/marriage market throughout the life course (Harknett, 2008; Mouzon et al., 2020), and there is evidence that instability and an imbalanced dating/marriage market are associated with higher rates of depression among Black women (Hughes & Waite, 2009; Simons et al., 2021; Whitton & Whisman, 2010). The current study will address this gap in the research.

Literature Review

Social Relationships and Health Theoretical Framework

The idea that romantic relationships might shape depressive symptoms among middle-aged and older Black adult women is generally consistent with a growing body of research on social relationships and mental health. For instance, Braithwaite and Holt-Lunstad (2017) found that warm and committed relationships are fundamental prerequisites for good mental health among older adults. Research on romantic relationships and mental health tends to draw on the broader research of social relationships and health (House et al., 1988; Umberson & Montez, 2010). The framework proposes that a lack of social integration serves as a risk factor for various health outcomes based on subjective and objective measures.

Teo et al. (2013) investigated the influence of social relationship quality between spouses and partners, family members, and friends, as well as the influence of social isolation using a national longitudinal cohort study in the United States. Social relationship quality, measured by subjective characteristics of social relationships (positive and negative), predicted major depressive symptoms while social isolation, an objective characteristic of social relationships, did not predict major depressive symptoms (Teo et al., 2013). Davidson et al. (2016) examined social relationships and depressive symptoms in a majority middle-aged and older adult sample. Both functional measures (consistent with Teo et al.’s (2013) subjective measures) and structural measures (consistent with Teo et al.’s (2013) objective measures) were significantly associated with depressive symptoms in the univariate analyses, while structural characteristics were no longer significant in the multivariate analysis (Davidson et al., 2016). While these findings provide evidence that would suggest that romantic relationship quality would be a better predictor for mental health symptoms among older Black adult women, there lacks a discussion related to findings on whether romantic relationship status or romantic relationship quality is a better predictor for depressive symptoms among middle-aged and older Black adult women in the United States.

Romantic Relationship Status and Depressive Symptoms

Kamp Dush and Amato (2005) reconceptualize relationship status as a measure of structural commitment. Across a continuum of committed relationships, Kamp Dush and Amato (2005) note that benefits of relationships increase in terms of social support, as well as positive perceptions of self, such that marital relationships would have the most accumulated benefits for well-being. Previous research has implemented Kamp Dush and Amato’s (2005) spectrum of commitment by including multiple relationship statuses to assess the benefits romantic relationships hold for well-being (Barr et al., 2013; Wright & Brown, 2017). Furthermore, not being in a committed romantic relationship may also signify social isolation. Social isolation from family and friends has been associated with depressive symptoms among older Black adults (Erving & Cobb, 2021; Taylor et al., 2020).

Using a spectrum measure of relationship status that includes multiple statuses, including no romantic relationships, is important given the changing landscape of relationships among older adults, which suggests recent changes in the roles relationship status has for predicting well-being. Additionally, increasing rates of gray divorce have led to increased dating relationships among middle-aged and older adults in the United States (Brown & Lin, 2012). These broader trends are applicable to the Black American community, as well. For instance, Black Americans are experiencing significant decreases in the rates of marriage, with only 33% of Black women being married in 2019, whereas 62% of Black women were married in 1950 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2019). Additionally, Black Americans have higher rates of divorce and lower remarriage rates compared to their White counterparts (Stykes & Williams, 2013).

Increasing rates of cohabitation and divorce among older adults have encouraged research to address the benefits of different relationship types for older individuals. Wright and Brown (2017) examined psychological well-being among older adults and the influence of relationship status, including dating and unpartnered individuals. The research found that while cohabiting and marital relationships functioned similarly for protecting against depressive symptoms, dating and unpartnered older individuals did not enjoy such benefits. These findings suggest that, despite a changing landscape of romantic relationships among middle-aged and older adults, romantic relationship status is an important predictor of mental well-being among aging adults, although benefits now extend to various relationship forms beyond that of marriage. Given the similarity in recent trends for romantic relationships among older populations across racial and ethnic groups (Brown & Lin, 2012; Stykes & Williams, 2013; U.S. Census Bureau, 2019), we would expect that findings regarding relationship status’ influence on depressive symptoms among aging adults, as reported by Wright and Brown (2017), would extend to middle-aged and older Black Americans.

However, research on romantic relationships which has specifically examined relationship status and its association with depressive symptoms among Black adults has mainly examined marital status. Dunlop et al. (2003) found that being unmarried was associated with increased risk of depressive symptoms among preretirement minority adults, especially for those who experience a union dissolution. Additionally, Schoenborn (2004) examined the health benefits that romantic relationship statuses, in particular, marital status held for various health outcomes. The analysis reported that Black individuals who were married were more likely to report fewer depressive symptoms than their White married counterparts. Furthermore, Addo and Lichter (2013) reported that marital status in older adulthood for Black women signified increased wealth accumulation and lesser financial strain, a significant risk factor for depressive symptoms among Black adults (Savoy et al., 2014).

Romantic Relationship Quality and Depressive Symptoms

Research related to relationship quality among middle-aged and older adults has found that increased conflict leads to increased depressive symptoms and poorer overall mental well-being. For example, Zambrano et al. (2021) assessed partner contributions to goal pursuit and achievement among couples aged 60–87 years old and found that increased partner support, higher relationship satisfaction, and lower levels of conflict were related to increased progress toward goals. Goal pursuit among older couples is associated with increased mental well-being and healthier aging as goals offer direction and purpose in life (Emmons, 2003). Research that has given particular attention to older women has reported that romantic relationship quality is positively associated with well-being (Shane et al., 2021).

The research has extended to focus directly on Black samples of Americans, including those who are middle-aged or older. For example, Gupta et al. (2015) carried out a qualitative study that outlined the experiences of love for older Black adults in the United States and found that older Black adults highly value emotional intimacy in their relationships. Furthermore, Lincoln and Chae (2010) examined the role of stress and marital satisfaction for psychological distress symptoms among a Black middle-aged sample. This research concluded that marital satisfaction offered significant protective benefits against psychological distress among middle-aged Black Americans. Jang et al. (2005) reported that both older African American and White women’s satisfaction with social support predicted psychological well-being outcomes, such that higher satisfaction was associated with fewer depressive symptoms. Furthermore, the results regarding satisfaction with social support were not significantly different between racial and ethnic groups (Jang et al., 2005), suggesting that trends in the body of literature presented on relationship quality and depressive symptoms would be consistent among a sample of middle-aged and older Black women.

Relationship Status and Relationship Quality as Simultaneous Predictors of Depressive Symptoms

Brown and Booth (1996) argue that romantic relationship status is associated with romantic relationship quality. Further supporting this line of research among Black Americans, Lincoln et al. (2008) reported that for Caribbean Black women in the United States relationship status was a significant predictor of relationship satisfaction. Although relationship quality and relationship status are often correlated, they are different measures of relationships. For example, Farrell et al. (2015) reported that in some instances, Black women were more committed to poor quality relationships that lacked trust and mutual respect (subjective measures of relationship quality). Explanations for these trends include imbalanced dating markets due to mass incarceration and discrimination experienced by Black males in the United States (Harknett, 2008; Simons et al., 2021). This distinction calls for further research on both romantic relationship status and quality as separate measures.

Research that has examined both relationship status and quality has largely focused on marital status or specifically on Black young adults. Hawkley et al. (2008) found that among a diverse sample of aging individuals, marital status only protected against feelings of loneliness for older women in a high-quality relationship. Barr and Simons (2014) reported that among Black young adult couples, relationship quality predicted outcomes of self-reported health and depression. Additionally, this effect was stronger among married and cohabiting couples than for dating couples, indicating that coresidence, not only marital coresidence, might offer an important function for romantic relationship benefits for Black young adults (Barr & Simons, 2014). Based on current trends among older Black adults regarding increases in divorce and decreases in remarriage (Stykes & Williams, 2013), the findings from Barr and Simons (2014) would be expected among an older Black population. However, the research from Barr and Simons (2014) constrained the sample to individuals in romantic relationships so that they would be able to assess romantic relationship quality for these relationship statuses. No research to date has examined the influence of relationship status, including singlehood, and relationship quality simultaneously for middle-aged and older Black adult women.

Current Study

Previous research that has examined romantic relationships among middle-aged and older Black adults and older Black women has reported that romantic relationships are associated with depressive symptoms (Addo & Lichter, 2013; Dunlop et al., 2003; Lincoln & Chae, 2010; Schoenborn, 2004). However, much of the research that examines relationship status and relationship quality has focused on marital relationships and has not been able to examine these measures simultaneously while including individuals who are not in a romantic relationship, especially among older Black women, therefore lacking needed attention on the influence of social isolation (Taylor et al., 2020). The current study hopes to address this methodological gap by using an internal moderators approach that allows for the analysis to assess a spectrum of relationship statuses, including singlehood. Building on prior research, we consider whether the protective benefits of relationship status or quality are stronger than the other among middle-aged and older Black women in the United States as they relate to objective and subjective characteristics of romantic relationships. A changing landscape of relationships and increasing similarity of benefits between different relationship statuses among middle-aged and older Black women (Mouzon et al., 2020; Stykes & Williams, 2013; U.S. Census Bureau, 2019), the lower impact of structural/objective characteristics related to social relationships (Davidson et al., 2016; Teo et al., 2013), as well as previous research regarding the protective benefits of relationship quality among older Black adults for psychological well-being (Gupta et al., 2015; Jang et al., 2005; Lincoln & Chae, 2010), we hypothesize that relationship quality will be a stronger predictor of depressive symptoms among the sample than a relationship status. To test these claims, we use Wave 6 of the Family and Community Health Study (FACHS), a multisite longitudinal study of Black families in the United States, to measure main effect variables. With these data, we used negative binomial regression analysis with internal moderators to examine the influence of romantic relationships on depressive symptoms while controlling for baseline depression at Waves 1 and 2 in order to better argue a causal relationship between current romantic relationships and current depressive symptoms.

Method

Sample

The current study uses a sample from the FACHS. The FACHS is a multisite, longitudinal study of neighborhood and family experiences and their effect on the health and development of 889 African American youth, their primary caregivers, and if present, secondary caregivers. Using 1990 Census data, 259 block group areas were identified, 115 in Georgia and 144 in Iowa. These group areas were selected based on neighborhood composition where 10% or more of the population were African American families and 20%–100% of the children in these families lived in poverty. Participants were recruited through a roster of all fifth graders from schools that zoned for the identified neighborhoods. Families were then contacted by phone with an 84% participation rate.

At Wave 1 (W1), most primary caregivers were mothers (83.5%), 5.5% were fathers, 5.6% were grandmothers, and less than 5% of primary caregivers were stepparents, other relatives, or foster or adoptive caregivers. Primary caregivers ranged in age from 23 to 80 years and were majority female (over 90%). Most caregivers completed a high school education (42%) but ranged from less than a high school degree (18%) to advanced graduate degrees (3%). Household incomes ranged from less than $10,000 to $100,000 (16% and 1.4%, respectively). During the 2015–2016 data collection, the average per capita income of middle-aged participants was $19,548 (SD = 17,900.21). The Georgia and Iowa samples were not significantly different on these demographic characteristics.

The analytic sample for the current study comprises a subsample of middle-aged and older Black adult women from Wave 6 (W6) of the FACHS collected from 2010 to 2011, aged 40–93 years. After excluding individuals missing on relationship status and relationship quality (n = 194), depression (n = 0), and control variables (n = 55), our final analytic sample consisted of 571 individuals with complete data in W6.

Procedure

In order to ensure cultural sensitivity and trust with participants within the FACHS, first, measures were selected using previous research with African American children and adults which demonstrated strong psychometric properties and predictive validity (Conger et al., 1992). Second, eight focus groups examined and critiqued the instruments before data collection started. Focus groups were comprised of 10 African American mothers who were socially similar to main study participants in respect to educational and economic backgrounds. Members of the focus groups would then suggest adjustments and modifications where items were deemed culturally insensitive or unclear. This protocol was then tested with new families from each state (16 total, 8 from each state). Furthermore, African American facilitators of the pilot test offered suggestions based on their extensive notes related to participant reactions to questionnaires.

All field interviewers and study participants were African American community members or university students. These members of the community were picked to enhance trust and rapport between them and the study participants. Interviewers had to have completed 1 month of training on administering computer-based, self-report questionnaires. Interviews were conducted in participant homes or nearby, convenient locations, based on participant preference. Interviews were held using the Computer-Assisted Personal Interview technique. Two visits were made, each lasting approximately 2 h within a 7-day period. Each family member completed a self-report questionnaire regarding family dynamics, neighborhood characteristics, and financial hardship in the first session. On the second visit, family members were videotaped as they responded to specific instructions from interviewers, such as responding to a set of discussion questions related to a range of issues regarding daily life. Interviewers would set up cameras, provide instruction, and leave the room to ensure that interviewers could not hear the conversation between family members. Data were coded using the Iowa Family Interaction Rating Scales (Melby & Conger, 2001). African American observers who had completed 240 h of training rated behaviors from the videotaped data. To ensure interobserver reliability, a second observer would subsequently rate a quarter of all tapes, selected at random. These ratings were compared to calculate an intraclass correlation coefficient.

Measures

Depressive symptoms

Depressive symptoms derive from a five-item scale based on the University of Iowa’s Mini Mood and Anxiety Symptom Questionnaire (Mini-MASQ; Clark & Watson, 1995). The Mini-MASQ has been widely used to measure depressive symptoms in community samples and among Black older adults (Lei et al., 2015; Simons et al., 2017; Taylor et al., 2010). Examples of questions include feeling depressed, discouraged, hopeless, like a failure, or worthless within the past week. The answer choices were coded as (0) no or (1) yes. All items were summed to create the depression measure (α = 0.82; range 0–15). To control for baseline depressive symptoms (Waves 1 and 2), we averaged depressive symptoms across waves using the Mini-MASQ (Clark & Watson, 1995).

Relationship status

Relationship status derives from one item in the FACHS, which asks, “what best describes your current relationship status?” Responses included (a) married; (b) living with someone in a steady, marriage-like relationship; (c) in a steady, romantic relationship with one person, but not currently living with a romantic partner; (d) dating, but do not have a steady romantic relationship with one person (6%); and (e) not dating or seeing anyone right now. We recoded responses into three dummy variables to measure different ranges of relationship statuses: married (1 = married, 0 = other), cohabiting (1 = married and cohabiting, 0 = other), exclusively dating (1 = married, cohabiting, and exclusively dating, 0 = other). The reference category for each dummy measure includes all relationship statuses not included otherwise (= 1), including singlehood.

Relationship quality internal moderator

This measure derives from a 12-item scale using two items related to relationship satisfaction, five measures related to partner warmth, and five measures related to partner hostility that has been identified and used in previous research which has examined and found significant findings related to relationship quality and well-being among Black adults (Barr et al., 2013; Simons et al., 2012). Measures of satisfaction asked participants how satisfied and how happy they are in their relationship, all things together. Questions related to partner warmth included measures of feeling appreciated, loved, and cared for, displays of affection, and acts of service (e.g., During the past 12 months, how often did [your romantic partner]; let you know they really care about you?; act loving and affectionate toward you?). Answer choices ranged from 1 (never) to 4 (always). Relationship hostility measures included items related to displays of anger and frequency of arguing, shouting, criticizing, and physical attacks (e.g., During the past 12 months, how often did [your romantic partner] get angry at you?). Answer choices ranged from 1 (never) to 4 (always). Items related to hostility were reverse-coded. All items were standardized and averaged to create the relationship quality scale, which measures increasing relationship quality (α = 0.85; range = −1.46 to 0.90).

Internal moderator model.—

Relationship quality was tested using an internal moderators approach following the work of Mirowsky (1999, 2002), and Williams (2004) on social relationships and well-being. Internal moderators allow the research to include individuals who are not in a romantic relationship in the analysis, offering a more nuanced understanding of the influence that relationship quality and status have on depressive symptoms among middle-aged and older Black adult women. Internal moderators examine the effect of relationship status when relationship quality is high or low. To create the internal moderator, we standardized the relationship quality scale, and then all individuals who were not coded as one for the relationship status groups were coded as a mean of zero for the relationship quality scale.

The following equation illustrates an internal moderator model, where  represents depressive symptoms and M is a binary measure of relationship status where (1) romantic relationship and (0) other, as described earlier when defining the relationship status measures and relationship status groups. M is the relationship status (1), and U is the relationship quality.

A^=b0+b1(M)+b2(U×M)

In instances where relationship quality is irrelevant to the individual and therefore undefined for individuals who are not in a romantic relationship, M = 0, as well as U × M; therefore, the predicted value for depressive symptoms for individuals not in a romantic relationship is b0. Furthermore, for individuals in a romantic relationship with any level of relationship quality, M = 1 and U ≠ 0; therefore, Â = (b0 + b1) + b2U. This indicates how relationship quality functions within a particular relationship status group for depressive symptoms while including individuals who are not in a romantic relationship in the analysis.

Covariates

The present study controlled for several factors that could be associated with depressive symptoms and romantic relationships. Sociodemographic controls included chronological age, education (0 = no degree, 1 = high school or GED completed, 2 = some college, 3 = Bachelor’s degree, 4 = graduate or professional training), number of children from current and past relationships, and baseline depression (W1 and W2).

Analytic Strategy

This research used STATA 14 (StataCorp, 2015) to investigate the hypothesized relationships. Summary statistics for all measures are displayed in Table 1. Given that depressive symptoms were overdispersed, we used negative binomial regression models to determine the association between depressive symptoms and romantic relationship characteristics. As noted earlier, we use internal moderators to retain individuals who indicated that they were not in a relationship in the sample (Mirowsky, 1999, 2002; Williams, 2004). Typically, when examining both relationship status and relationship quality, researchers will constrain the analysis to those individuals where both variables are defined, hence obscuring the comparison to noncommitted older Black women and heightening the risk for selection bias. Internal moderators address this methodological gap in the body of research. Incidence rate ratio results for the negative binomial regression analysis are given in Table 2. Table 2 contains three sets of analyses. Models 1 and 2 assess relationship status as it is measured by the first relationship status group, married (1 = married, 0 = other). Models 3 and 4 show the results for the second set of analysis that assesses the role relationship status has when measured by the married and cohabiting relationship status group (1 = married and cohabiting, 0 = other). Models 4 and 5 show the results for the final set of analysis where relationship status is measured by the exclusively dating, cohabiting, and married group (1 = married, cohabiting, and exclusively dating, 0 = other). These analyses are run separately to assess the robustness of the results at various levels across a spectrum of relationship status. This enables us to better understand at what relationship status are romantic relationships providing mental health benefits, and does the quality of these relationships influence the results. In these analyses, Models 1, 3, and 5 include the covariates: baseline depression, education, age, and number of children, as well as the main effect for relationship status for the married group. Models 2, 4, and 6 step in the relationship quality internal moderator for the corresponding relationship status group.

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics for Study Variables From Family and Community Health Study (N = 571)

Variable M (SD) and proportions
Depressive symptoms (M + SD) 6.34 (1.88)
Relationship quality (M + SD) 0.01 (0.57)
Relationship status, %
 Married 0.34
 Cohabiting 0.13
 Exclusively dating 0.12
 Casually dating 0.06
 No relationship 0.35
Baseline depressive symptoms 5.86 (2.09)
Education, %
 No degree 0.19
 High school diploma or GED 0.35
 Some college 0.34
 Bachelor’s degree 0.08
 Graduate or professional training 0.04
Age (M + SD) 49.98 (7.73)
Number of children 3.44 (1.70)
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Table 2.

IRRs for the Negative Binomial Regression Model for Depressive Symptoms With Internal Moderators and Sociodemographic Controls (N = 571)

Dependent variable: Depressive symptoms
Married Married and cohabiting Married, cohabiting, and exclusively dating
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6
IRR IRR IRR IRR IRR IRR
Relationship status 0.998 0.995 1.002 1.000 0.993 0.991
Relationship quality 0.942* 0.935** 0.934**
Control variables
 Baseline depression 1.040** 1.039** 1.040** 1.040** 1.040** 1.038**
 Education 0.943** 0.944** 0.943** 0.946** 0.943** 0.948**
 Age 0.998 0.998 0.999 0.999** 0.998 0.999
 No. of children 0.994 0.993 0.993 0.994 0.994 0.993
Constant 6.020** 6.047** 5.995** 5.900** 6.064** 6.090**
Δ chi-square (df = 1) 4.37* 7.89** 10.20**
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Note: IRR = incidence rate ratio (eb). Relationship status: being married vs. others (Models 1 and 2); being married + cohabiting vs. others (Models 3 and 4); and being married + cohabiting + exclusively dating vs. others (Models 5 and 6).

*p < .05, **p < .01.

Results

Table 1 displays the descriptive statistics for study variables. The depressive symptoms score is 6.34 (standard deviation [SD] =1.88). This indicates that most individuals in the sample are reporting low levels of depressive symptoms. Relationship quality is evenly distributed with a mean of 0.01 (SD = 0.57). Among respondents in our sample, 34% are married, 13% are cohabiting, 12% are exclusively dating, 6% are casually dating, and 35% were not in a romantic relationship at the time surveyed. For educational achievement, 19% of the sample reported having no high school degree or less, 35% have finished high school or received a GED, 34% have completed some college, 8% have received a bachelor’s degree, and 4% have completed graduate or professional training.

Negative binomial regression was used for the analyses reported in Table 2 given that depressive symptoms is a count variable that is overdispersed (likelihood ratio test for the alpha equal to zero gave p < .05). Across analyses, baseline depression and education remained significant such that greater baseline depression was associated with greater current depressive symptoms, and higher education was associated with fewer depressive symptoms. Models 1 and 2 present the results for the first set of analyses that assessed marital status and marital relationship quality. Model 1 shows that the main effect of relationship status (marital) when controlling for covariates (e.g., baseline depressive symptoms, education, age, and number of children) was not significant in predicting depressive symptoms. In Model 2 of Table 2, we used an internal moderator approach to examine the extent to which the impact of relationship status is dependent on the relationship quality. As hypothesized, the internal moderator of relationship quality for married women was significant (eb= 0.942, p < .05). Focusing on the three simple slopes among (a) being married reporting high levels of relationship quality (1 SD above the mean), (b) those not in a married relationship, and (c) those who are married that have low relationship quality (1 SD below the mean). The results indicated that higher-quality marital relationships have lower depressive symptoms, whereas married with low relationship quality or not in a married relationship have higher depressive symptoms, suggesting that being married with high relationship quality offers protective benefits against depressive symptoms.

Turning to Models 3 and 4, we add cohabiting relationship status to the relationship status measure. Again, the main effect in Model 3 of relationship status is not significant. In Model 4, the relationship quality internal moderator for this range of romantic relationship statuses was significant (eb= 0.935, p < .01), indicating a pattern virtually identical to those described in Models 1 and 2. The results suggest that married or cohabiting women with higher relationship quality protect against depressive symptoms more significantly than does relationship status.

The final set of analyses is presented in Models 5 and 6. This analysis adds to the relationship status measure by including an exclusively dating relationship status. Models 5 and 6 show similar results to those of the first two analyses. The relationship status measure is not significant in Model 5, while the relationship quality internal moderator is significant in Model 6 (eb = 0.934, p < .01). Again, the analysis provides evidence that relationship quality offers protective benefits for depressive symptoms, while relationship status does not significantly offer protective benefits. Finally, for each set of analyses, the difference in deviance between models was significant, indicating that the addition of the internal moderator for relationship quality improves the model fit.

Sensitivity Analysis

We conducted a series of sensitivity analyses to determine the robustness of these findings. First, previous research has found that relationship length influences relationship quality and further influences depressive symptoms (Whitton & Kuryluk, 2012). To ensure that the exclusion of relationship length in the previous analyses did not affect the findings presented in our initial analysis, we added relationship length for each type of relationship (married, cohabiting, and exclusively dating) to the corresponding models. Married relationship length was added to Models 1 and 2, married and cohabiting relationship length was added to Models 3 and 4, and married, cohabiting, and exclusively dating relationship length were added to Models 5 and 6. The results of these sensitivity analyses showed no change in the pattern of results (Supplementary Table 1).

Given that we used a full sample size to examine all potential relationship status combinations, the reference group may be confounded. In order to check the robustness of our initial findings between romantic relationship status, relationship quality, and depressive symptoms, we ran the same analyses with only individuals who are not in romantic relationships included in the reference groups. For example, when considering marital status in the initial analysis, the reference group included individuals who were in cohabiting relationships, exclusively dating, and in no relationship. In the sensitivity analysis, the reference groups across analyses only contained individuals who were not in a romantic relationship. The results of these sensitivity analyses showed no change in the pattern of results (Supplementary Table 2).

Discussion

It is well established that romantic relationships influence mental health among adults, including middle-aged and older Black adults, and more specifically older Black women (Addo & Lichter, 2013; Dunlop et al., 2003; Gupta et al., 2015; Jang et al., 2005; Lincoln & Chae, 2010; Schoenborn, 2004; Taylor et al., 2020; Wright & Brown, 2017). There is, however, less clarity on which indicator of romantic relationships is a better predictor for mental health among middle-aged and older Black adults, relationship status, or relationship quality. The current study addressed this gap in the literature using longitudinal data from a sample of middle-aged and older Black adult women. The results suggest that measures of relationship quality, including satisfaction, warmth, and hostility, are better in predicting current depressive symptoms, than are measures of various romantic relationship statuses.

The first aim was to assess to what extent romantic relationships influenced rates of depressive symptoms among the study sample. We found that romantic relationships affect mental health such that better relationship experiences were associated with a significant decrease in depressive symptoms. By including an assessment of baseline depressive symptoms, we were better able to examine the unique influence of current romantic relationships on current depressive symptoms. These findings are consistent with past research on romantic relationships and health (Barr & Simons, 2014; Davidson et al., 2016; Gupta et al., 2015; Lincoln & Chae, 2010; Teo et al., 2013).

Our second aim was to examine which measure of romantic relationships was a better predictor of mental health among middle-aged and older Black adult women and if this varied by relationship status groupings. Relationship status across relationship status groupings was not significantly associated with depressive symptoms. Scholars have put forth possible explanations for the lack of significant influence relationship status may have compared to relationship quality. Manning et al. (2014) argue that a changing relationship landscape in the United States, applicable to the community of older Black American adults (Mouzon et al., 2020; Stykes & Williams, 2013; U.S. Census Bureau, 2019), with declining marriage rates and increasing cohabitation rates, has resulted in the objective factors of relationships no longer offering the same benefits as they used to. Individuals are more invested in finding high-quality relationships with subjective benefits. Additionally, research has reported that singlehood strain and stigma is much less pronounced among middle-aged and older Black women (Pudrovska et al., 2006), given Black women’s historic and continued representation in the workforce compared to their White counterparts and higher levels of social support from extended kin (Coles, 2016).

Higher relationship quality, on the other hand, was associated with less depression among the women in our sample. This is consistent with prior research that has found that lack of conflict in a relationship, better overall quality, and strength of subjective measures of social relationships predict better mental health outcomes for middle-aged and older adults (Davidson et al., 2016; Teo et al., 2013), generally, and for middle-aged and older Black adults, more specifically (Barr & Simons, 2014; Gupta et al., 2015; Lincoln & Chae, 2010; Shane et al., 2021).

The current research includes essential strengths, including the use of the FACHS, a longitudinal, prospective sample comprised of middle-aged and older Black adult caregivers, a population underresearched in the topic area. Additionally, FACHS allows the current study to include multiple relationship statuses among middle-aged and older Black adult women to expand on the existing literature, which has primarily assessed marital relationships among a middle-aged and older population. Finally, the use of internal moderators allowed the research to maintain individuals who were not in a romantic relationship in the analysis, further allowing a more nuanced discussion and understanding of the role romantic relationships have for depressive symptoms.

However, it is essential to address the limitations associated with the current study. We used a large community sample of older Black adults but future research would benefit from replication with a large national sample. Additionally, we use relationship status as an indirect measure of structural commitment based on Kamp Dush and Amato’s (2005) reconceptualization, as has often been done in previous research studying romantic relationships and well-being (Barr et al., 2013; Wright & Brown, 2017). However, it is important to note that relationship status is an imperfect measure for structural commitment, especially among those who may be widowed. Furthermore, the research utilized a reference group of noncommitted casual dating and nondating individuals, limiting the research’s ability to assess objective social isolation. The research also constrained the sample to middle-aged and older Black adult women. This restriction of the sample limits generalizability of the current study. Due to a lack of available data, the current study did not control for a number of past relationships and should be considered in future studies. Finally, while the inclusion of baseline depressive symptoms helps the current study to claim the unique influence of current romantic relationships on current depressive symptoms, future research should examine changes in relationship status or quality and their influence on changes in depressive symptoms over time among middle-aged and older Black adults.

The rapidly growing population of middle-aged and older Black adult women in the United States will bring increased numbers of individuals facing mental health challenges in later life. The findings from this study suggest that relationship quality across a relationship status spectrum is associated with depressive symptoms, such that better relationship experiences are significantly associated with fewer depressive symptoms. These results highlight the need for creating initiatives that focus on giving older individuals the tools necessary to increase better romantic relationship experiences to encourage the protective benefits that romantic relationships can have for depressive symptoms and overall well-being among middle-aged and older Black adult women.

Supplementary Material

gbac016_suppl_Supplementary_Tables
Click here for additional data file. (19.2KB, docx)

Acknowledgments

This research was not preregistered with an analysis plan in an independent, institutional registry. The current study used human participants and therefore sought and obtained approval from the Institutional Review Board (STUDY00000172).

Contributor Information

Stephanie L Hanus, Department of Sociology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA.

Leslie G Simons, Department of Sociology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA.

Man-Kit Lei, Department of Sociology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA.

Ryon J Cobb, Department of Sociology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA.

Ronald L Simons, Department of Sociology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA.

Funding

This research was supported by the National Institute of Mental Health (MH48165, MH62669) and the Center for Disease Control (029136-02). Direct all correspondence to Dr. L. G. Simons.

Conflict of Interest

None declared.

Author Contributions

S. L. Hanus conceived the study, conducted the analysis, and wrote the manuscript. L. G. Simons collected the data, contributed to the study design, and assisted in the manuscript preparation and responses to reviewers. M. K. Lei consulted on the model specification, analytic plan, and reanalysis for revisions. R. J. Cobb helped to plan the study and contributed to reviewing the literature. R. L. Simons collected the study data, selected instrumentation, consulted on statistical analyses, and provided comments on manuscript revisions.

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Supplementary Materials

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