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Current limitations of eukaryotic and bacterial EVs in biomedical applications.
| Eukaryotic (hEVs) | Bacterial (bEVs) | Common Limitations |
|---|---|---|
| Differentiation between cell surface markers | Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) toxicity | Immunomodulators outburst |
| Inefficient purification of vesicles | High inflammatory responses | Low viability and inefficient growth conditions |
| Lack of heterogeneity | High chance of infection (pathogen-derived bEVs) |
High cellular toxicity |
