Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Springer Nature - PMC COVID-19 Collection logoLink to Springer Nature - PMC COVID-19 Collection
. 2022 Dec 1:1–9. Online ahead of print. doi: 10.1007/s12144-022-04046-2

Parental attachment and cyberbullying among college students: the mediating role of loneliness and the moderating role of interdependent self

Yong Fang 1,2, Cuiying Fan 1,✉, Jia Cui 1,3,✉, Xuechen Zhang 1, Ting Zhou 1,4
PMCID: PMC9713105  PMID: 36471812

Abstract

Although considerable research has shown that attachment is a protective factor for cyberbullying, little research has investigated the mechanisms underlying this relationship among college students. This study examined whether loneliness mediates the association between parental attachment and cyberbullying and whether this process is moderated by interdependent self. A sample of 1125 college students (Mage = 19.14, SDage = 1.52 years) in China completed a questionnaire measuring parental attachment, cyberbullying, loneliness, and interdependent self. Loneliness partially mediated the relationship between parental attachment and cyberbullying. Moreover, the mediation effect of loneliness was moderated by interdependent self. A moderated mediation analysis further revealed that interdependent-self moderated the predictive effect of loneliness on cyberbullying. Specifically, the predictive effect of loneliness on cyberbullying was only significant among college students with low interdependent self. The study highlights the complex nature of the association between parental attachment and cyberbullying. These findings provide new perspectives for intervention and prevention of cyberbullying among college students.

Keywords: Parental attachment, Cyberbullying, Loneliness, Interdependent self

Introduction

With the rapid development of an internet-based society, electronic communication technology has had a profound effect on people’s lives. According to the 49th China Statistical Report on Internet Development, by December 2021, the number of internet users in China had reached 1.032 billion (China Internet Network Information Center, 2021). However, with this growth come several problems that require urgent attention. One such problem is cyberbullying (Jing et al., 2017). Cyberbullying refers to the behavior of individuals or groups who repeatedly bully vulnerable individuals or groups via digital media for the purpose of causing harm (Tokunaga, 2010).

Research has revealed that cyberbullying can be divided into seven categories: flaming, online harassment, cyberstalking, denigration, masquerading, outing, and exclusion (Li, 2007). Cyberbullying is closely related to individual negative emotions, such as depression, anxiety, and loneliness. It also has negative effects on social interaction and behavior, leading to psychosocial maladjustment and behavioral disorders among cyberbullying victims, perpetrators, and even bystanders (Kowalski et al., 2014).

Most research on cyberbullying to date has emphasized cyberbullying behavior in middle and high school students (Cassidy et al., 2013), whereas relatively fewer studies have investigated college students. However, previous studies on cyberbullying among college students have found prevalence rates of cyberbullying around 10%–15% (Hemphill et al., 2012; Hinduja & Patchin, 2010; Schenk & Fremouw, 2012). Moreover, the incidence rates may even be higher (Gibb & Devereux, 2014; Selkie et al., 2015). In China, students in junior and senior school bear the pressure of further study compared with college students. Some surveys in China have shown that cyberbullying among college students is an emerging issue warranting attention (Chen et al., 2020; Leung et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2019). In addition, previous studies have analyzed the causes of cyberbullying from the perspective of parental attachment, which is helpful for the development of effective intervention programs (Paez, 2020; Zhu et al., 2021). However, for Chinese college students, there are few studies verified the relationship between parental attachment and cyberbullying, as well as its associated psychological factors (e.g., a specific emotion, one type of self) and mechanisms. The current study aims to fill this gap.

Parental attachment and Cyberbullying

Family is the primary place for individual socialization and development, and the family system plays a key role in individual psychological and behavioral development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Among the many related factors in the family system, the level of attachment between individual and parents is a key factor, and the relationship between parental attachment and problematic behavior has remained an important research topic in clinical psychology (Frits et al., 2000). Parental attachment refers to the emotional connection and bond between an individual and their parents, which affects the quality of interpersonal relationships across the life span (Pallini et al., 2014).

Social control theory, also known as “social key theory” or “social bonding theory”, suggests that the attachment component is a primary “social key”; that is, the stronger the emotional attachment between individuals and people around them, especially their parents, the more likely they are to feel that people around them are friendly and trustworthy. Strong social relationships allow them to realize the need for autonomy, further leading to less problem behavior (Hirschi, 1969). However, poor social connections, and especially unhealthy parental attachment, can disrupt individual self-affirmation and have negative effects on interpersonal relations and increase the risk of problematic behavior (Pallini et al., 2014). Several empirical studies have demonstrated a significant negative correlation between parental attachment levels and individual problem behavior (Chen et al., 2015) and that individuals with low parental attachment levels show more bullying behaviors compared with individuals with high levels of parental attachment (Chang et al., 2015). Cyberbullying is an extension of traditional bullying (Smith, 2015). The influence of the individual family system on bullying behavior is thought to extend from the real world to the online world.

Studies have shown that family upbringing style (He et al., 2016) and parental psychological control (Fan et al., 2017) predict individual cyberbullying. For adolescents, some studies have emphasized the need to ensure strong, positive parent–child attachment to enhance cyberbullying prevention efforts (e.g., Paez, 2020; Zhu et al., 2021). However, in general, the number of studies on this relationship among young adults is small, especially for Chinese college students (Canestrari et al., 2021; Martínez-Monteagudo et al., 2019). On the basis of the attachment theory, early attachment experience, mainly parents attachment, is the starting point of personality and social development, which has a lasting and extensive influence on the physical, mental and social adaptation of individuals. Chinese college students, whom were influenced by Chinese traditional culture such as Confucianism, should attach more importance to relations with parents, and Zeng (2009) found that Chinese college students’ parents attachment has important effect on somatopsychic adaptation. In summary, the specific mechanism underpinning the relation between parental attachment and cyberbullying in the family system remains unclear, and the effects of parental attachment on cyberbullying merit further discussion. Accordingly, we hypothesize that a high level of parental attachment is associated with less cyberbullying (H1).

Loneliness as a mediator

Uruk and Demir (2003) found that family relationships, especially the relationship between individuals and their parents, are an important, long-term factor affecting individual loneliness. Loneliness refers to an individual's subjective feelings about the quantity and quality of a person’s social interactions, which is different from the objective social isolation from society in connotation. Such subjective feelings occurs when the social network is less satisfying than she/he would like (Russell et al., 1980). As a complex interplay of emotion and cognition, loneliness involves the frustration and negativity that an individual feels from not being accepted in intimate or social relationships (Heinrich & Gullone, 2006). Wiseman et al. (2006) conducted a study on the loneliness of freshmen and found that students’ loneliness in college was significantly and negatively correlated with early parent–child relationships. Some studies have also found that individual parental attachment level affects loneliness (Zhang et al., 2017).

Davis (2001) proposed a cognitive-behavioral model of pathological internet use (PIU), which distinguishes between specific PIU and generalized PIU. Specific PIU refers to the condition in which an individual pathologically uses the internet for a particular purpose, such as online sex or online gambling, whereas generalized PIU describes a more global set of behaviors, where individual deviant behavior is caused by risk factors such as substance dependence, social isolation, or loneliness. Relevant empirical studies have shown that factors such as loneliness are important explanatory variables for poor online relationships and can predict cyberbullying (Brewer & Kerslake, 2015). Thus, we infer that the cognitive-behavioral model of PIU can also explain the specific deviant behavior of cyberbullying.

In addition, the general aggression model (GAM) posits that input variables (personal and situational factors) can affect an individual’s internal state (e.g., cognition and emotion), thereby affecting an individual’s judgment and behavior (Anderson & Bushman, 2002). Loneliness is a typical individual internal state, and researchers often investigate loneliness as a mediator variable (Sun et al., 2017). However, previous studies have primarily focused on the mediating effect of loneliness on individual aggression in real environments. The present study examines the mediating role of loneliness in the internet environment. Based on the above discussion, it is reasonable to predict that loneliness may mediate the relation between parental attachment and cyberbullying (H2).

Interdependent self as a moderator

Lazarus and Folkman (1984) suggested that cognitive appraisals, rather than the event itself, determine what coping style we adopt. According to the transactional theory of stress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), people react differently to the same thing and reach different outcomes. However, personality variables play an important role in understanding the situation (Garrido, 2016; Vollrath et al., 1998; Zhou et al., 2017). Davis (2001) suggested that individual deviant behavior on the internet can be affected by personality variables. The self is an important concept for individual personality, and its positive development corresponds with positive personality development. It is also an important protective factor for psychological and behavioral development (Xu et al., 2017). Markus et al. (1991) proposed that there are different types of self from the perspective of the relationship between individuals and others and that interdependence is a critical type. Singelis (1994) further suggested that the interdependent self is defined by social relations. It emphasizes the relation and interdependence between the individual and others and may be necessary toward maintaining mutual relationships with others, where the self exists as part of one’s social relationships.

It is thought that individuals with different self-types show differences in thinking patterns and information-processing methods in dealing with interpersonal relationships (Hong & Chang, 2015), which then have an impact on individual motivation and behavior (Ding et al., 2016). In general, individuals who are high in interdependent self value the needs and views of others, which is critical in interpersonal situations (Cross et al., 2002). Therefore, we speculate that individuals who pay little attention to others’ needs and feelings are more likely to become involved in cyberbullying to deal with loneliness, whereas those with the same degree of loneliness and high interdependent self may show less cyberbullying in order to maintain positive interpersonal relationships. Consequently, this study further introduces the moderating variable of “interdependent self.” Specifically, we predict that interdependent-self moderates the relationship between loneliness and cyberbullying, and specifically, the latter half of the mediating role of loneliness (H3).

The present study

In summary, drawing from classical theories and models, such as social control theory, the cognitive-behavioral model of PIU, and the self from the perspective of the relationship between individuals and others, the purpose of this study is to explore the influence of parental attachment on cyberbullying. Specifically, we aimed to investigate (a) whether parental attachment negatively predicts cyberbullying and (b) whether loneliness mediates the relationship between parental attachment and cyberbullying and (c) whether interdependent-self moderates the indirect relations between parental attachment and cyberbullying (i.e., the latter half of the mediating role of loneliness).

Methods

Participants

Prior to conducting the present study among Chinese college students, we have sought the opinions of the students' parents and obtained the approval of school authorities and the University Academic Committee. Participants who did not have one or both of the parents raising them were not required to fill out the questionnaire. A total of 1336 online questionnaires were collected, and after discarding questionnaires based on item scoring rules, short answer time, and other problematic reasons, 1125 valid questionnaires were obtained. Of these, 364 were from men and 761 were from women, and their mean age was 19.14 years (SD = 1.52).

Before starting the survey, participants were informed that they were free to refuse or discontinue participation at any time. Researchers clearly stated and emphasized the fact that any information the participants provided would not be revealed to anyone. Lastly, participants completed four online questionnaires (described below).

Measures

The parent attachment scale

We adopted the Chinese college students’ parental attachment questionnaire (Zeng, 2009), which includes four subscales: father attachment intimacy, mother attachment intimacy, father attachment autonomy, and mother attachment autonomy. There are 30 items in the questionnaire, and the score for each item ranges from 1 to 6. The total score of this questionnaire reflected the level of participant’s parental attachment (Cui et al., 2021). In the present study, the CFA showed an acceptable fit: RMSEA = 0.04, NFI = 0.86, CFI = 0.89, TLI = 0.91. The Cronbach’s alpha for the total score was 0.91.

Cyberbullying perpetration subscale

To capture cyberbullying, the cyberbullying perpetration subscale in the revised cyberbullying inventory (Chu & Fan, 2017) was adopted. The subscale contains 14 items depicting cyberbullying activities that respondents may have perpetrated over the past 6 months, and each item is graded from 1 to 4 (1 = “never implemented,” 2 = “1 time,” 3 = “2–3 times,” and 4 = “more than 3 times”). The higher the score, the more cyberbullying students are involved in. In this study, Cronbach’s alpha for the total scale was 0.71.

Loneliness scale

Individual general loneliness was assessed with the University of California, Los Angeles loneliness scale. This scale is used to evaluate the gap between the desire for social interaction and the actual level and is a one-dimensional scale (Russell et al., 1978, 1980). Wang (1995) translated and revised the scale into Chinese, and the revised version has good reliability and validity. The scale used here consists of 20 items, where participants rate each item on a 4-point scale from 1 to 4. A high total score indicates a high level of individual loneliness. In this study, Cronbach’s alpha for the total score was 0.83.

Interdependent self-construal scale

Singelis (1994) developed the self-construal scale (SCS). Tang (2010) revised the scale and studied on characteristics of Chinese college students' self-construals in the collectivism cultural background. We used the revision interdependent self-construal scale, which is the subscale of SCS and consists of 15 items. This subscale ranges from 1 to 5, where higher scores indicate higher levels of interdependent self-construal. For the present sample, the internal consistency of scale was acceptable (Cronbach’s α = 0.81).

Control and assessment of common method biases

Considering the common biases associated with different measurement methods, some approaches were taken to control the analyses or to evaluate bias. First, this study followed previous advice (Podsakoff et al., 2003) advocating anonymous procedures and reverse scoring of some items. Second, Harman’s single-factor test was conducted to assess common method bias. The results showed that the eigenvalues of nine factors were greater than 1.0, and the variance explained by the first factor was 25.50%, less than the critical standard of 40%. This suggests that there was no serious common method bias in this study, which can be used to inform subsequent statistical analysis.

Statistical analysis

All of the statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS 22.0 and SPSS macro PROCESS 2.16. First, we analyzed descriptive statistics and correlations among variables. Second, Model 4 of the PROCESS macro (Hayes, 2013) was used to test Hypotheses 1 and 2. Finally, we used Model 14 to test the moderated mediation for Hypothesis 3. This approach has been widely accepted for testing complex models, including moderated mediation (e.g., Shi et al., 2021). We test the significance of the effects using a bootstrapping approach, which constructs confidence intervals (CIs) derived from many bootstrap resamples (here, n = 5000). If the CI excludes zero, the effect is considered statistically significant. The method has been extensively used to calculate estimates because it can implement statistical tests without needing to satisfy the standard assumption of normality.

Results

Prevalence and correlational analysis

In the current sample (n = 1125), 20.71% of the college students reported that they had bullied someone online at least once in the past 6 months. The correlation analysis in Table 1 shows that there was a significant negative correlation between parental attachment and cyberbullying, as well as with loneliness. In turn, interdependent-self construal was negatively correlated with cyberbullying and loneliness. There was a significant positive correlation between parental attachment and interdependent-self construal, as well as between loneliness and cyberbullying.

Table 1.

Descriptive statistics and correlations between variables

M SD 1 2 3 4
1 Parental attachment 4.13 0.62 1
2 Cyberbullying 1.12 0.39  − 0.22** 1
3 Loneliness 2.13 0.47  − 0.49** 0.16** 1
4 Interdependent self 4.90 0.67 0.32**  − 0.18**  − 0.30** 1
Open in a new tab

* p < 0. 05, ** p < 0. 01, *** p < 0.001. An identical system is used in subsequent tables

Mediation analysis

Controlling for demographic variables such as gender and grade, we used the SPSS macro PROCESS (Model 4; Hayes, 2013) to conduct mediation analysis. As shown in Table 2, parental attachment significantly predict cyberbullying, which is the total effect. When parental attachment and loneliness were added to the regression equation as predictors of cyberbullying, parental attachment had a significant negative effect on loneliness, what's more, both parental attachment and loneliness significantly predict cyberbullying. The statistic (β) for indirect effects was − 0.04, and the bootstrap 95% CI did not include 0 (− 0.06, − 0.01). Therefore, loneliness partially mediated the relationship between parental attachment and cyberbullying, and the mediating effect accounted for 16.87% of the total effect (Fig. 1).

Table 2.

Mediation test

Outcome Predictors R2 F-value β t-value
Cyberbullying Gender 0.05 18.34***  − 0.07  − 1.06
Grade 0.00 0.15
PA  − 0.21  − 7.26***
Loneliness Gender 0.24 119.04***  − 0.08  − 1.38
Grade  − 0.02  − 0.89
PA  − 0.48  − 18.01***
Cyberbullying Gender 0.05 13.95***  − 0.06  − 0.97
Grade 0.01 0.20
PA  − 0.18  − 6.23***
Loneliness 0.07 2.76***
Open in a new tab

Bootstrap sample size = 5000; PA  Parental attachment. The same is true for Fig. 1.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

Open in a new tab

The mediation model examining the mediating effect of loneliness

Moderated mediation analysis

Controlling for demographic variables such as gender and grade, we used the SPSS macro program PROCESS (Model 14; Hayes, 2013) to conduct a moderated mediation analysis. The results are shown in Table 3. After the interdependent-self construal variable was added in the model, the product (interaction term) of loneliness and interdependent self significantly predicted cyberbullying. This indicates that the latter half of the mediating effect between parental attachment and cyberbullying was moderated by interdependent self (Fig. 2).

Table 3.

Moderated mediation effect test

Outcome Predictors R2 F-value β t-value
Cyberbullying Gender 0.08 11.29***  − 0.08  − 1.27
Grade 0.00 0.09
PA  − 0.15  − 5.07***
Loneliness 0.07 2.69**
IS  − 0.10  − 2.31*
Loneliness × IS  − 0.13  − 3.49***
Open in a new tab

IS  Interdependent-self

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

Open in a new tab

Moderated mediation model with the moderated effect of loneliness

To clarify the moderating effect, the high and low groups were divided based on 1 SD of interdependent self-construal, and the regression slope of loneliness on cyberbullying was tested in each group (i.e., simple slope test), and the simple effect is shown in Fig. 3. When the level of interdependent self was low (M − 1 SD), loneliness positively predicted cyberbullying (simple slope = 0.25, t = 5.70, P < 0.001). When the level of interdependent self was high (M + 1 SD), loneliness did not have an effect on cyberbullying (simple slope = 0.01, t = 0.29, P > 0.05). Thus, with higher interdependent self-construal, the predictive effect of loneliness on cyberbullying decreased. That is, interdependent self can buffer the influence of loneliness on cyberbullying.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

Open in a new tab

Simple effect analysis of the effect of interdependent self on the second-half mediation path

Discussion

Based on previous empirical and theoretical evidence, this study constructed a moderated mediation model of cyberbullying, with loneliness as a mediating variable and interdependent self as a moderating variable. We investigated two specific questions: first, whether parental attachment affects cyberbullying among college students and, second, how parental attachment among college students predicts cyberbullying. The results have theoretical and practical implications for furthering our understanding of the relationship between parental attachment and cyberbullying.

First, this study investigated the relationship between parental attachment and cyberbullying among college students, and the results showed that parental attachment is negatively correlated with cyberbullying. Specifically, lower levels of parental attachment were associated with greater likelihood of engaging in cyberbullying. This result supports the conclusions of previous similar studies (Paez, 2020; Yusup et al., 2018). Thus, the emotional connection between children and their parents has a direct effect on the likelihood and extent of cyberbullying. This study not only verified the effect of social connection on deviant behavior in the context of social cybernetics (Hirschi, 1969) but also provided empirical support for potential causes of cyberbullying. Individual attachment with parents leads to the formation of stable mental states (Shaver & Mikulincer, 2002) reflecting the “internal working model” of one’s attitude toward others. This in turn affects the way individuals engage in interpersonal interaction with others. Individuals with high levels of parental attachment exhibit less aggressive and hostile sexual behavior as compared with those with low levels of parental attachment (Ooi et al., 2006). However, previous studies have shown externalization problems caused by low parental attachment in non-online domains, such as smoking, alcoholism, substance abuse, and antisocial behavior. As the internet has become an essential part of daily life, this study demonstrated that the influence of parental attachment on individual psychology and behavior extends from the real world to the online world. This finding not only enriches the applicability of attachment theory in developmental psychology in the online domain, but also suggests that creating a warm family atmosphere and improving attachment relationships among parents and other family members has implications for online behavior.

Second, we confirm that loneliness can predict cyberbullying behavior (Brewer & Kerslake, 2015), supporting the applicability of the cognitive-behavioral model of PIU in explaining the causes of cyberbullying behavior (Davis, 2001). That is, under the influence of psychopathological risk factors such as loneliness, individuals may abuse others on the internet, socialize in an “eye for an eye” way, isolate others, and so on. Critically, this study shows that loneliness plays a mediating role between parental attachment and cyberbullying, similar to previous findings (Sun et al., 2017). Individuals with poor parental attachment are often high in loneliness (Zhou et al., 2019). In addition, given the accessibility and anonymity afforded by the internet, individuals who feel lonely can easily vent negative emotions online without concern for implications. We have tested the GAM (Anderson & Bushman, 2002) in an online environment, showing that loneliness—a complex cognitive and emotional construct—is an important mediating variable in the relation between parental attachment (environmental input) and cyberbullying (explicit aggressive behavior).

Finally, we also found that the mediating effect of loneliness on the relation between parental attachment and cyberbullying was moderated by interdependent self. Specifically, the indirect effect of loneliness was only non-significant in individuals with high interdependent self, consistent with previous findings on self-construction (Cross et al., 2002; Ding et al., 2016). This is likely because individuals with high interdependent self tend to connect closely with others, pay attention to the needs and opinions of people around them, and thus maintain harmonious and beneficial communication (Cross et al., 2000; Xie, 2018). Even if such individuals experience loneliness, this does not impact their interpersonal relationships. According to self-construal theory (Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Singelis, 1994), when the level of interdependent self was not high and in the context of negative emotions such as loneliness, individuals will do not prioritize their relationships with others, even carry out cyberbullying.

This study focused on the relationships among parental attachment, cyberbullying, loneliness, and interdependent self and identified a mechanism, parental attachment might explain cyberbullying among college students. Owing to limited conditions, the present study had some limitations that must be addressed. First, we used a cross-sectional design to examine the relationship between parental attachment and cyberbullying, as well as the mediating effect of loneliness and the moderating effect of interdependent self. In the final model on cyberbullying, the explained variance is relatively low. Longitudinal research or intervention experiments can be used to further explore the relationships. Second, the variables were all collected by questionnaire and subjective report. Although we identified no serious common method bias, the results were inevitably affected by social expectations and might not be sufficiently objective. Thus, future studies should collect multiple types of data (e.g., behavioral experiments or electroencephalograph recordings).

Despite these limitations, the findings of this study have several significant implications. First, according to social control theory (Hirschi, 1969), attachment plays a fundamental role in crime reduction. Improve parental attachment relationships is always important. Second, the study was conducted during COVID-19, when college students did not return to school. The lower the level of parental attachment, the higher the loneliness and the more cyberbullying behaviors. In particular, during the COVID-19 pandemic, emotional self-efficacy and emotion regulation mediate the relation between cyber victimization and well-being among youths (Schunk et al., 2021). This study suggests that we should prioritize reducing individual loneliness when preventing and providing intervention for cyberbullying. Finally, this study found that the deviant behavior of individuals on the internet is influenced by their own personality, which provides avenues for changing problematic cyberbullying behavior. We should also concentrate on the individual’s understanding of the relationship between the self and others.

Conclusion

Parental attachment negatively predicted cyberbullying. Loneliness partially mediated the relationship between parental attachment and cyberbullying. The mediating effect of loneliness was moderated by interdependent self. The predictive effect of loneliness on cyberbullying was only significant among college students with low interdependent self.

Acknowledgements

This study was funded by Humanities and Social Sciences Research Funds from the Ministry of Education of China [Project no. 21JDSZ3067], Opening Research Program Funds of Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior (CCNU), Ministry of Education: The Research of Mechanism of Internet Use on adolescents’ mental health [Grant Number 2019B05].

Data availability

No datasets have been shared by the author for the following reason: The respondents were assured that raw data would remain confidential and would not be shared.

Declarations

Ethical approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Conflict of interest

On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.

Footnotes

Publisher's note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Contributor Information

Cuiying Fan, Email: fancy@ccnu.edu.cn.

Jia Cui, Email: cuijiamm@yeah.net.

References

  1. Anderson CA, Bushman BJ. Human aggression. Annual Review of Psychology. 2002;53(1):27–51. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135231. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Brewer G, Kerslake J. Cyberbullying, self-esteem, empathy and loneliness. Computers in Human Behavior. 2015;48(7):255–260. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2015.01.073. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  3. Bronfenbrenner U. Toward an ecology of human development. American Psychologist. 1979;32(7):513–531. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.32.7.513. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  4. Canestrari, C., Arroyo, G. D. M., Carrieri, A., Muzi, M., & Fermani, A. (2021). Parental attachment and cyberbullying victims: The mediation effect of gelotophobia. Current Psychology, 1-12. 10.1007/s12144-021-01642-6.
  5. Cassidy W, Faucher C, Jackson M. Cyberbullying among youth: A comprehensive review of current international research and its implications and application to policy and practice. School Psychology International. 2013;34(6):575–612. doi: 10.1177/0143034313479697. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  6. Chang FC, Chiu CH, Miao NF, Chen PH, Lee CM, Chiang JT, et al. The relationship between parental mediation and internet addiction among adolescents, and the association with cyberbullying and depression. Comprehensive Psychiatry. 2015;57:21–28. doi: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2014.11.013. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Chen W, Li DP, Bao ZA, Yan YW, Zhou ZK. The impact of parent-child attachment on adolescent problematic internet use: A moderated mediation model. Acta Psychologica Sinica. 2015;47(5):611–623. doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2015.00611. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  8. Chen H, Li Y, Li YR, Fan CY. The effect of cyber-Victimization on non-suicidal self-injury: The chain mediating role of social exclusion and negative emotion. Chinese Journal of Special Education. 2020;1:73–78. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1007-3728.2020.01.012. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  9. China Internet Network Information Center. (2021). The 48th statistical report of the development of China Internet network. http://www.cnnic.net.cn/hlwfzyj/hlwxzbg/hlwtjbg/202202/P020220407403488048001.pdf. Accessed February 2022
  10. Chu XW, Fan CY. Revision of the revised cyber bullying inventory among junior high school students. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology. 2017;25(6):1031–1034. doi: 10.16128/j.cnki.1005-3611.2017.06.008. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  11. Cross SE, Bacon PL, Morris ML. The Relational-Interdependent Self-Construal and Relationships. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology. 2000;78(4):791–808. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.78.4.791. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Cross SE, Morris ML, Gore JS. Thinking about oneself and others: The relational-interdependent self-construal and social cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2002;82(3):399–418. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.82.3.399. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Cui J, Wu K, Fang Y. Effect of parental attachment on loneliness of college students during covid-19: the mediating role of online social support and online learning self-efficacy. Psychology Monthly. 2021;16(20):61–62+65. doi: 10.19738/j.cnki.psy.2021.20.017. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  14. Davis RA. A cognitive-behavioral model of pathological internet use. Computers in Human Behavior. 2001;17(2):187–195. doi: 10.1016/S0747-5632(00)00041-8. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  15. Ding Q, Zhou ZK, Zhang YX. Social network sites use and addiction among college students: The mediating role of positive self-presentation and the moderating role of relational-interdependent self-construal. Psychological Development and Education. 2016;25(6):1031–1034. doi: 10.16187/j.cnki.issn1001-4918.2016.06.06. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  16. Fan CY, Zhang M, He D. Effect of parental control on cyber-bullying in adolescents: The mediating role of moral disengagement. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology. 2017;25(3):516–519. doi: 10.16128/j.cnki.1005-3611.2017.03.026. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  17. Frits W, Hub L, Ruud A. The parental bond and the well-being of adolescents and young adults. Journal of Youth & Adolescence. 2000;29(3):307–318. doi: 10.1023/A:1005195624757. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  18. Garrido S. The influence of personality and coping style on the affective outcomes of nostalgia: Is nostalgia a healthy coping mechanism or rumination? Personality and Individual Differences. 2016;120:259–264. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2016.07.021. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  19. Gibb ZG, Devereux PG. Who does that anyway? Predictors and personality correlates of cyberbullying in college. Computers in Human Behavior. 2014;38:8–16. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2014.05.009. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  20. Hayes AF. Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. Journal of Educational Measurement. 2013;51(3):335–337. doi: 10.1111/jedm.12050. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  21. He D, Fan CY, Niu GF, Lian GF, Chen W. The effect of parenting style on adolescent’s cyberbullying: The mediating role of narcissism and empthy. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology. 2016;24(1):41–44. doi: 10.16128/j.cnki.1005-3611.2016.01.009. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  22. Heinrich LM, Gullone E. The clinical significance of loneliness: A literature review. Clinical Psychology Review. 2006;26(6):695–718. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2006.04.002. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Hemphill SA, Tollit M, Kotevski A. Rates of bullying perpetration and victimisation: A longitudinal study of secondary school students in Victoria, Australia. Pastoral Care in Education. 2012;30(2):99–112. doi: 10.1080/02643944.2012.679953. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  24. Hinduja S, Patchin JW. Bullying, cyberbullying, and suicide. Archives of Suicide Research. 2010;14(3):206–221. doi: 10.1080/13811118.2010.494133. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Hirschi T. Causes of delinquency. University of California Press; 1969. pp. 250–257. [Google Scholar]
  26. Hong J, Chang HH. "I" follow my heart and "We" rely on reasons: The impact of self-construal on reliance on feelings versus reasons in decision making. Journal of Consumer Research. 2015;41(6):1392–1411. doi: 10.1086/680082. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  27. Jing JJ, Gao C, Hu AK, Geng QY. Effect of empathy on behaviors of different roles in cyberbullying. Chinese Journal of Applied Psychology. 2017;23(3):267–277. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1006-6020.2017.03.007. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  28. Kowalski RM, Giumetti GW, Schroeder AN, Lattanner MR. Bullying in the digital age: A critical review and meta-analysis of cyberbullying research among youth. Psychological Bulletin. 2014;140(4):1073–1137. doi: 10.1037/a0035618. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Lazarus RS, Folkman S. Stress, Appraisal, and Coping. Springer; 1984. [Google Scholar]
  30. Leung ANM, Wong N, Farver JM. Cyberbullying in Hong Kong Chinese students: Life satisfaction, and the moderating role of friendship qualities on cyberbullying victimization and perpetration. Personality and Individual Differences. 2018;133:7–12. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2017.07.016. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  31. Li Q. Bullying in the new playground: Research into cyberbullying and cybervictimization. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology. 2007;23(4):435–454. doi: 10.14742/ajet.1245. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  32. Markus HR, Kitayama S. Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review. 1991;98(2):224–253. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.98.2.224. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  33. Martínez-Monteagudo MC, Delgado B, Inglés CJ, GarcíaFernández JM. Cyberbullying in the university setting. Relationship with family environment and emotional intelligence. Computers in Human Behavior. 2019;91:220–225. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2018.10.002. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  34. Ooi YP, Ang RP, Fung D, Wong G, Cai Y. The impact of parent-child attachment on aggression, social stress and self-esteem. School Psychology International. 2006;27(5):552–566. doi: 10.1177/0143034306073402. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  35. Paez GR. Assessing predictors of cyberbullying perpetration among adolescents: The influence of individual factors, attachments, and prior victimization. International Journal of Bullying Prevention. 2020 doi: 10.1007/s42380-019-00025-7. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  36. Pallini S, Baiocco R, Schneider BH, Madigan S, Atkinson L. Early child-parent attachment and peer relations: A meta-analysis of recent research. Journal of Family Psychology. 2014;28(1):118–123. doi: 10.1037/a0035736. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Podsakoff PM, Mackenzie SB, Lee JY, Podsakoff NP. Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology. 2003;88(5):879–903. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Russell D, Peplau LA, Ferguson ML. Developing a measure of loneliness. Journal of Personality Assessment. 1978;42(3):290–294. doi: 10.1207/s15327752jpa4203_11. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Russell D, Peplau LA, Cutrona CE. The revised UCLA Loneliness Scale: Concurrent and discriminant validity evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1980;39(3):472–480. doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.39.3.472. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Schenk AM, Fremouw WJ. Prevalence, psychological impact, and coping of cyberbully victims among college students. Journal of School Violence. 2012;11(1):21–37. doi: 10.1080/15388220.2011.630310. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  41. Schunk F, Zeh F, Trommsdorff G. Cybervictimization and well-being among adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic: The mediating roles of emotional self-efficacy and emotion regulation. Computers in Human Behavior. 2021 doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2021.107035. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Selkie EM, Kota R, Chan YF, Moreno M. Cyberbullying, depression, and problem alcohol use in female college students: A multisite study. Cyberpsychol Behavior and Social Networking. 2015;18(2):79–86. doi: 10.1089/cyber.2014.0371. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Shaver PR, Mikulincer M. Attachment-related psychodynamics. Attachment & Human Development. 2002;4(2):133–161. doi: 10.1080/14616730210154171. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Shi HF, Fan CY, Chu XW, Zhang XC, Wu LL. Positive perceived school climate and cyberbullying in chinese adolescents: A moderated mediation model from the perspective of internet characteristics. The Journal of Early Adolescence. 2021;41(8):1177–1202. doi: 10.1177/0272431621989816. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  45. Singelis TM. The measurement of independent and interdependent self-construals. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin. 1994;20(5):580–591. doi: 10.1177/0146167294205014. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  46. Smith PK. The nature of cyberbullying and what we can do about it. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs. 2015;15(3):176–184. doi: 10.1111/1471-3802.12114. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  47. Sun LJ, Heng SP, Niu GF, Li JY, Du HQ, Hu XE. Association between childhood psychological abuse and aggressive behavior in adolescents: The mediating role of the security and loneliness. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology. 2017;25(5):902–906. doi: 10.16128/j.cnki.1005-3611.2017.05.024. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  48. Tang, G. M.,(2010). A study on characteristics of college students' self-construals in the collectivism cultural background. Southwest University, A Dissertation for Master Degree. 10.7666/d.y1670804.
  49. Tokunaga RS. Following you home from school: A critical review and synthesis of research on cyberbullying victimization. Computers in Human Behavior. 2010;26(3):277–287. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2009.11.014. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  50. Uruk AC, Demir A. The role of peers and families in predicting the loneliness level of adolescents. The Journal of Psychology. 2003;137(2):179–193. doi: 10.1080/00223980309600607. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Vollrath M, Torgersen S, Alnæs R. Neuroticism, coping and change in mcmi-ii clinical syndromes: Test of a mediator model. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology. 1998;39(1):15–24. doi: 10.1111/1467-9450.00051. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Wang W, Xie XC, Wang XC, Lei L, Hu Q, Jiang S. Cyberbullying and depression among Chinese college students: A moderated mediation model of social anxiety and neuroticism. Journal of Affective Disorders. 2019;256:54–61. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2019.05.061. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Wang, D. F. (1995). A study on the reliability and validity of Russell loneliness scale. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 3(1): 23–25. http://ir.calis.edu.cn/hdl/211010/16747. Accessed August 2022
  54. Wiseman H, Mayseless O, Sharabany R. Why are they lonely? Perceived quality of early relationships with parents, attachment, personality predispositions and loneliness in first-year university students. Personality & Individual Differences. 2006;40(2):237–248. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2005.05.015. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  55. Xie, X. F. (2018). Online community climate, psychological reactance, and community participation--the moderating of interdependent construal .Tianjin University, A Dissertation for Master Degree. 10.7666/d.D01679691.
  56. Xu HH, Sun XJ, Zhou ZK, Niu GF, Lian SF. True self-expressionon social network sites and loneliness: Mediating of self-concept clarity. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology. 2017;25(1):137–141. doi: 10.16128/j.cnki.1005-3611.2017.01.030. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  57. Yusup S, Hassan MS, Samah BA, Ibrahim MS, Ramli NS, Rahman NA, et al. Parental attachment and cyberbullying experiences among Malaysian children. Pertanika Journal of Scholarly Research Reviews. 2018;4(1):67–80. [Google Scholar]
  58. Zeng, X. Q., (2009). Characteristics of college students’ parental attachment and its effects on college adjustment. Southwest University, A Dissertation for Doctoral Degree. 10.7666/d.y1556046
  59. Zhang L, Zhao KL, Liu S, Zhan WQ. Influencing models of parent and peer attachment on adolescents’ loneliness: Based on different types of schools. Psychological exploration. 2017;37(4):339–344. [Google Scholar]
  60. Zhou Y, Li D, Li X, Wang Y, Zhao L. Big five personality and adolescent internet addiction: The mediating role of coping style. Addictive Behaviors. 2017;64:42–48. doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2016.08.009. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Zhou HF, Liu ZJ, Fan YM, Li BH. The mediation of loneliness on the relationship between parent-child relationship and cyberbullying in junior high school students. Studies of Psychology and Behavior. 2019;17(6):787–794. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1672-0628.2019.06.010. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  62. Zhu, Y., Li, W., O'Brien, J. E., & Liu, T. (2021). Parent-child attachment moderates the associations between cyberbullying victimization and adolescents' health/mental health problems: An exploration of cyberbullying victimization among Chinese adolescents. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(17-18). 10.1177/0886260519854559. [DOI] [PubMed]

Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Data Availability Statement

No datasets have been shared by the author for the following reason: The respondents were assured that raw data would remain confidential and would not be shared.

Articles from Current Psychology (New Brunswick, N.j.) are provided here courtesy of Nature Publishing Group

RESOURCES