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. 2022 Nov 14;7(47):42916–42925. doi: 10.1021/acsomega.2c05007

Prosopis juliflora Seed Waste as Biochar for the Removal of Blue Methylene: A Thermodynamic and Kinetic Study

Carlos Diaz-Uribe †, Luis Walteros †, Freider Duran †, William Vallejo †,*, Arnold R Romero Bohórquez ‡
PMCID: PMC9713793  PMID: 36467916

Abstract

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In this work, we studied the methylene blue (MB) dye adsorption capacity on biochar derived from residues of Prosopis juliflora seed waste, a species found in the region of the tropical dry forest of Piojó in the Department of Atlántico, Colombia. The materials were obtained by pyrolysis at temperatures of 300, 500, and 700 °C. Biochar was characterized using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX), TGA, and Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) techniques. The three biochar samples presented a macroporous, rough structure with pore size between 6 and 28 μm. The largest pore surface area observed was 1.28 m2/g for pyrolyzed biochar produced at 500 °C, larger than that of biochar produced at 700 °C, which was 0.83 m2/g. The adsorption results show that the maximum percentage of MB removal was 69%. According to SEM results, the material’s pore sizes varied on average from 6 to 28 μm. We modeled MB adsorption on biomass through three different isotherm models. The Freundlich model was the best-fitting model for the removal of MB (KF = 1.447; 1/n = 0.352). The kinetic results showed that the pseudo-second-order model was the best-fitting model for the sorption process (qe = 2.94 mg/g; k2 = 0.087 g/(mg/min–1)). Furthermore, the recycling test showed that the biochar did not change its adsorption capacity significantly. Finally, under the experimental conditions, the thermodynamic parameters indicated that the removal of MB using biochar was an endothermic and spontaneous process; all ΔG° values ranged from −2.14 to −0.95 kJ/mol; ΔH° was 23.54 kJ/mol and ΔS° was 79.5 J/mol.

1. Introduction

Many water bodies are polluted by solid waste and chemical substances (organic and inorganic nature) that are harmful to the environment.1,2 Most of these compounds come from industrial activity. These anthropogenic activities produce waste that runs through surface and groundwater and reaches water bodies through processes such as leaching and runoff.3 Textile industries generate a diversity of pollutants; among these are dyes, which commonly result from textile-waste processes. Azo dyes are applied in dyeing processes due to their high activity; reports indicate that 50–70% of the total dye quantity employed in textile, plastic, and paper industries can involve these dyes.4 Some of these compounds are hardly biodegradable, in addition to the fact that traditional treatments cannot break down recalcitrant dyes.5,6 In an aquatic environment, these compounds can settle on the entire surface of the water body and adsorb much of the sunlight, preventing photosynthetic organisms from accessing the energy they need, therefore decreasing the productivity of photosynthetic species, the concentration of dissolved oxygen and, in turn, increasing both the chemical oxygen demand (COD) and the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).7,8 Furthermore, the production of toxic intermediates resulting from the decomposition of dyes by environmental factors affects the variability of species in flora and fauna.9,10 Methylene blue (MB) is an organic cationic dye characterized by its intense bluish color, with applications in the textile, biological, chemical, and medical industries.11 MB is a tricyclic phenothiazine, soluble in water.12 MB dyes can generate intermediate substances, some of them highly toxic for their carcinogenic or mutagenic characteristics.13 Currently, various techniques are applied to eliminate waste coming from food or textile industries, either through biological processes (e.g., bioremediation or biological filtration)14 or phase change processes (e.g., sorption,15,16 biological, advanced oxidation17 and, sono-photocatalytic degradation18,19). Although advanced oxidation processes are very efficient in mineralizing dyes, their application is limited due to financial factors (e.g., higher costs both on chemicals and energy consumption).20 Moreover, in some cases, a second process is necessary to remove residual oxidants or unknown recalcitrant byproducts.21 Biological processes include (i) biological filtration, (ii) bioremediation, and (iii) the use of active sludge and activated sludge or mud.22,23 However, these methods have some drawbacks, as they (i) require a large surface area of land, (ii) demand a longer time for discoloration-fermentation processes, and (iii) are unable to remove dyes continuously.24

With the increase of emerging contaminants in wastewater, adsorption has become an effective and affordable mechanism to treat them. Adsorption is a phase change technology capable of transferring contaminants from one phase to another. This technology includes the following adsorption methods: adsorption by activated carbon, adsorption by biochar; adsorption by nanomaterials, adsorption by membranes, and adsorption by clay minerals.25 Given their adsorption capacity, porous structure, and large surface area, activated carbons have proven to be an important alternative as an adsorption technology.26 The main drawback thereof is the high cost of regeneration and the raw material necessary for their activation, given that activated carbons need chemical agents to improve their adsorption capacity.27 Adsorption based on biomass sources (named biochar) can eliminate the contaminants from wastewater of textile industries, with the advantage of being both more economical and more ecological than commercial adsorbents.28 Different biomass sources have been reported to remove methylene blue from water bodies (e.g., corn cob residues,29 rice husk,30 mango leaves,31 microalgae32). Currently, the use of biomass as a potential adsorbent is an important goal to be achieved in the scope of adsorption technologies.33

Agricultural waste is misled or discarded in most countries due to either unawareness or a proper channel to transfer and utilize it.34 Agricultural and other natural waste components have the potential to become biochar, and in the Caribbean region there is a variety of natural waste available to be used as biochar. The Prosopis juliflora plant species can be found in the tropical dry forest region of Piojó and other municipalities of the Department of Atlántico, Colombia.35 This plant is used to reduce the internal temperature of houses in the region. During the first quarter of the year, the species begins to produce its seeds, which become waste that is later burned or discarded as solid waste. Furthermore, the P. juliflora plant contributes to enhancing the transmission capacity of malaria disease.36 In this work, we produced biochar from P. juliflora waste seeds obtained from the houses of residents of Piojó. We studied the effect of pyrolysis temperature on the physicochemical properties of biochar. We investigated the adsorption capacity of methylene blue on biochar, in addition to analyzing the adsorption mechanism of this dye by means of adsorption isotherm and kinetic studies. Finally, we carried out a thermodynamic study of the process.

2. Experimental Section

2.1. Biomass Source Location and Biochar Synthesis

Biomass samples were collected from houses and farms in the district of Hibácharo, municipality of Piojó, Department of Atlántico, Colombia (GPS coordinates 10°45′01″ N 75°06′27″ O) [see the Supporting Information for further details, Figures S1 and S2]. The collected P. juliflora waste seeds were washed with potable water to clean their outer surface and were later dried in an oven at 105 °C for 4 h. Finally, the clean seeds were milled and then proceeded to the synthesis process.37,38 The resulting biomass was put in a pyrolysis reactor (Terrigeno-brand) in a nitrogen atmosphere (500 mLN2/min) for 30 min. Pyrolysis was then performed at a heating rate of 5 °C/min–1 at three different temperatures (300 °C (biochar 1), 500 °C (biochar 2), and 700 °C (biochar 3)). The pyrolysis process started at ambient temperature and the exposition time at each temperature was 2 h; Figure 1 shows a scheme of the biochar fabrication.39,40

Figure 1.

Figure 1

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Schemcatic process of the biochar synthesis.

2.2. Biochar Characterization

The physical–chemical properties of biochar were examined through (i) Fourier transform infrared (FTIR)-spectroscopy (using an ECO-ATR α Bruker FTIR spectrometer); (ii) thermogravimetric analysis (using a TA Instruments TGA 5500-Discovery analyzer), with an N2 flow of 25 cm3/min and a heating rate of 5–20 °C/min from 25 until 800 °C; (iii) the Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) method, with N2 physisorption at 77 K (using a Micromeritics 3Flex N2 sortometer); and (iv) scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX) (using an FEI Quanta FEG 650 microscope). For the chemical assay, we used an EDAX Apollo X detector (126.1 eV resolution) and EDX Genesis software.

2.3. Adsorption Isotherm Study

Due to its low cost and risk, methylene blue (MB) is considered a model molecule for the study of mechanisms of adsorption of cationic dyes by new biochars.41 The effect of MB concentration on adsorption was studied between the range 10 and 150 mg/L (initial concentration of MB = 10, 15, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120, and 150 mg/L). The volume of the solution was 25 mL, pH 6.0, and a biochar load was 0.100. In each assay, the samples were kept in constant agitation for 3 h at 150 rpm and a temperature of 298 K. The concentration of MB was determined by UV–vis spectrophotometry at 665 nm (using a Shimadzu UV-2401PC UV–vis spectrophotometer). The adsorption capacity of MB on the biochar surface was determined using the following equation

2.3. 1

where qe is the amount (mg) of MB adsorbed per gram of biochar (mg/g) at equilibrium, C0 is the initial MB concentration (mg/L), Ce is the MB concentration at equilibrium, V (L) is the volume of the system, and m (g) is the amount of biochar. Adsorption data were fitted to the Freundlich, Langmuir, and Temkin isotherm models.42Table 1 lists the equations and corresponding physical–chemical parameters.43 A fitting correlation coefficient (R2) and an average relative error (ARE) were used to determine the best-fitting isotherm

2.3. 2

where qe is the experimental value, qf is the fitted value, and n is the number of data points. Details of fitting parameters are given in Table 1.

Table 1. List of Equations for Isotherm and Kinetic Fitting42,43.

model equation parameters
Langmuir equation Inline graphic qe(mg/g) is the MB amount (mg) adsorbed on biomass (g) at equilibrium condition; qm is the Langmuir maximum uptake of MB per gram of biomass (mg/g); and KL(L/mg) is the Langmuir constant.
Freundlich equation Inline graphic KF((mg/g) (L/mg)1/n) and n are Freundlich constants and Ce(mg/L) is the equilibrium concentration of MB.
Temkin isotherm Inline graphic B is the Temkin constant associated with the parameter bT by the relation Inline graphic, AT is the equilibrium binding constant (L/mg), T is the absolute temperature, and R is the gas constant.
pseudo-first order Inline graphic qt is the MB amount (g) adsorbed by gram of the biochar surface at time t (min), qe is the same ratio at the equilibrium, k1(min–1) and k2(g/mg·min) are the rate constants of the pseudo-first and pseudo-second-order models, respectively. The kid(mg/g·min1/2) is the intraparticle diffusion rate constant.
pseudo-second order Inline graphic
Intraparticle diffusion Inline graphic
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2.5. Adsorption Kinetics and Thermodynamic Study

We determined the amount of MB adsorbed onto biochar as a function of time according to the following equation

2.5. 3

where Ct (mg/L) is the concentration of MB in the solution at time t (min). We employed three adsorption kinetic models to fit the experimental data: (a) pseudo-first-order, (b) pseudo-second-order, and (c) intraparticle diffusion.44 The thermodynamic parameters of the adsorption process, Gibbs free energy (ΔG°), enthalpy (ΔH°), and entropy (ΔS°) were determined according to45

2.5. 4
2.5. 5
2.5. 6

where T is the absolute temperature (K), R is the universal gas constant (8.314 J/mol·K), and K is the thermodynamic equilibrium constant.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Biochar Yield

After the pyrolysis process, the biochar yield is affected by the experimental conditions, such as temperature and residence time, along with the type and properties of the raw material (e.g., water content, cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin). Lignin is more stable than cellulose and hemicellulose and contributes significantly to biochar yield.46P. juliflora has a typical content of 40–44% cellulose, 25–30% hemicellulose, and 20–22% lignin.47 We studied the effect of temperature on biochar yield. The highest biochar yield percentage (34.12%) was obtained at 300 °C, then decreased to 19.45% at 500 °C, and finally 17.22% at 700 °C. These changes are associated with different aspects: cellulosic degradation and depolymerization, dehydration, volatilization, and concentration of aliphatic and aromatic carbon-containing systems.48 Because of its high content of cellulose and hemicellulose, biomass can degrade at low temperatures (between 200 and 400 °C).49 At higher pyrolysis temperatures, biomass carbonization through rapid dehydrogenation, gasification, and condensation increases, resulting in a marked reduction in solid biochar yield.

3.2. Biochar Characterization

3.2.1. Thermogravimetric Assay

Figure 2 shows thermogravimetric curves for the three different temperatures analyzed. Temperatures between 25 and 45 °C presented slight weight losses of approximately 5% for biochars 2 and 3 and close to 11% for biochar 1, possibly due to the loss of water and volatilization of low-molecular-weight organic solvents.50Figure 2 shows a weight loss of 68% for biochars 2 and 3 between temperatures 420 and 570 °C and 60% for biochar 1 between temperatures 370 and 470 °C. These results are associated with the thermic degradation of cellulose and oxidation of lignin.51 Finally, Figure 2 shows a weight of approximately 10% between temperatures 470 and 800 °C for biochar 1 and between 570 and 800 °C for biochars 2 and 3. This behavior is associated with carbonization and thermochemical transformation (e.g., demethylation and decarboxylation reactions).52

Figure 2.

Figure 2

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TGA for biochars obtained from P. juliflora by pyrolysis at 300 °C (biochar 1), 500 °C (biochar 2), and 700 °C (biochar 3).

Through pyrolysis, the basic organic components of raw materials, such as hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin, degraded between 200 and 600 °C. Depending on the pyrolysis temperature, different structural compositions of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin lead to thermal decomposition differences and, therefore, to different remaining percentages of these compounds in the final biochar.53 After cellulose degradation, the lignin content continues to decompose from 400 to 800 °C; this is the most complex polymer of lignocellulosic biomass and requires high temperatures and more time for decomposition. Unlike hemicellulose and cellulose, lignin is composed of stable benzene–propane units of high molecular weight, hence difficult to be broken down. Lignin derivatives are responsible for the generation of phenolic products.54Figure S3 shows a general scheme of pathway reaction of the pyrolysis process.55

3.2.2. FTIR Assay

Figure 3 shows the FTIR spectra of the biochars obtained from P. juliflora by pyrolysis at three different temperatures. The band located between 3200 and 2800 cm–1 is assigned to asymmetrical and symmetrical stretch vibrations of the C–H bond (e.g., methyl and methylene groups); these groups appear as a result of tarry remains that partially volatilized, but these could be present in the initial structure of biochar.56,57 The bands located between 1600 and 1400 cm–1 are assigned to carbon–carbon stretching vibrations in the aromatic ring, alkene groups.58 The bands located between 1200 and 1000 cm–1 are assigned to the stretching vibration of the C–O bond (e.g., carboxylic acids in the cellulose and hemicellulose).59 Finally, the bands located between 800 and 700 cm–1 are assigned to the bending vibration of the C–H bond.

Figure 3.

Figure 3

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FTIR spectra of biochars obtained from P. juliflora by pyrolysis at 300 °C (biochar 1), 500 °C (biochar 2), and 700 °C (biochar 3).

In the pyrolysis process, temperature affects the final functional groups present on the biochar surface. As the pyrolysis temperature increases from 300 to 500 °C, the number of intense bands increases, and this is due to the process of aromatization and degradation of lignocellulosic components, such as dehydrogenation reactions.57 The intensity of the signals reducing at 700 °C is associated with the biomass degradation process (e.g., dehydration and deoxygenation reactions), which leads to reducing the content of polar functional groups and other functional groups containing hydrogen and oxygen, thus suggesting that aliphatic compounds can be highly aromatized during the carbonization process.60

3.2.3. BET Assay

Figure 4 shows the BET nitrogen isotherms of the sampled biochar (2 and 3). According to the IUPAC nomenclature,61 biochar isotherms are type II, with H3-type hysteresis. This behavior is associated with solids constituted of laminar packages or solids constituted of pores with a crack-like shape (e.g., activated carbons).62 The BET surface area of biochar 2 was 1.28 m2/g, and of biochar 3, it was 0.83 m2/g (the reduced surface area of biochar 1 did not allow obtaining the BET nitrogen isotherms). As observed, the surface area increased with increasing pyrolysis temperature. This phenomenon can be attributed to the evaporation and gradual decomposition of volatile organic components as the pyrolysis temperature increases, making the carbon matrix structure highly concentrated, generating more pores in the structure and favoring the development of a larger surface area.63 The biochars obtained from straw, seeds, or fruit shells show less developed structures than those with abundant lignin; therefore, the former produce more ash and have smaller surfaces, compared to biochars produced with other types of biomasses. The low surface area of biochar 3 can be attributed to a high ash content present on the surface, blocking either the meso-, micro-, or macropores.64

Figure 4.

Figure 4

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N2 physisorption isotherms of biochar 2 (blue line) and biochar 3 (red line).

Another study reported that the surface area of biochar increases with increasing temperatures below 600 oC but decreases at temperatures above 700 oC.65 Besides, biochars produced from cotton stalks slightly increased their surface area with increasing pyrolysis temperature; however, this area decreased when the temperature increased to 650 oC due to pores collapsing and channels becoming blocked at high temperatures.66 The type of isotherm and the surface area are characteristic of macroporous solids with a diameter of approximately 50 nm, a result that could be ratified by SEM analysis. Our results are according to other reports; Pawar et al. reported a BET surface area value of 0987 m2/g to biochar derived from P. juliflora.67

3.2.4. SEM-EDX Assay

The changes in surface morphology and elemental components on the surface of the three biochar samples obtained were studied by SEM-EDX analysis. Figure 5 shows the SEM micrographs of the samples. The surface morphology of all biochars was heterogeneous, structurally complex, and with additional porosity forming during thermal conversion. The images clearly show macroporous and rough surface textures. The obtained biochars showed a surface with an incomplete pore structure, which is consistent with their low value of the surface area. Porosity is a consequence of the release of matter in the form of small volatile molecules (H2O, CO, CO2, and CH4) during the thermal conversion process.68 When the temperature increases, the surface of the biochar becomes rougher, and more pore structures appear. Due to the persistence of organic matter in the biochar network at low temperatures (300 °C), the pores did not develop totally. In biochar 2, changes in microscopic morphology were observed as the pores were revealed. The underlying pores widened due to the removal of volatile matter.69 At higher temperatures (e.g., 700 oC), carbon deposition and sintering of inorganic compounds may occur. Figure 5c shows the collapse of the pore structure, which attributes a lower value of the surface area to biochar 2. This can be explained because lignin pyrolysis produces tars (condensed volatiles) and other decomposition products that, in turn, partially block the pores of the biochar surface.70 In some areas, the biochar samples contain a large part of arranged structures, mostly of macroporous texture, in the form of a honeycomb. Pore sizes varied on average from 6 to 28 μm; but in some cases, these pores fused after pyrolysis to produce larger cavities.

Figure 5.

Figure 5

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SEM images of P. juliflora obtained by pyrolysis at (a) 300 °C (biochar 1), (b) 500 °C (biochar 2), and (c) 700 °C (biochar 3).

According to the results of the EDX assay (Figure S4), all of the biochar samples analyzed consist mainly of carbon and oxygen; and the remaining elements are (i) nonmetallic (P and Cl) and (ii) metallic (K, Ca, Na and Mg). It is noted that the carbon content increases with increasing pyrolysis temperature while the oxygen content decreases. Heat treatment results in the gradual decomposition of organic macromolecules into raw materials, such as cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, which through dehydration and decarboxylation reactions of degradable and volatile carbon compounds, contribute to decreasing the hydrogen and oxygen contents.71 Furthermore, the reactivity of coal gasification also depends on factors such as the presence of inorganic components. For example, potassium is known to impede the gasification process, and this may be a reason for the low surface area of the samples. Previous research has shown that the presence of inorganic components such as K, Na, Ca, Fe, and Mg affects the overall reactivity of gasification.72

3.3. Adsorption Isotherms

Due to its higher surface area, we choose biochar 2 to perform the sorption study. Models of adsorption isotherms can be used to examine the interaction between methylene blue dye and biochar. We used three different models of isotherms: Langmuir, Freundlich, and Temkin, which are the most used for this type of adsorbent.73Figure 6 shows the experimental isotherm and the fitting to the models proposed, and Table 2 lists the adsorption isotherm parameters.

Figure 6.

Figure 6

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Fitting adsorption isotherm models for MB adsorption onto biochar 2.

Table 2. Isotherm Model Parameters.

isotherm model parameters
Langmuir qmax(mg/g) KL(L/mg) R2 ARE (%)
8.285 0.0651 0.981 12.9
Freundlich KF(mg/g)(L/mg)1/n 1/n R2 ARE (%)
1.4469 0.352 0.999 0.03
Temkin A (L/mg) KT (L/g) R2 ARE (%)
1.47 1.17 0.918 8.0
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According to Figure 6 and Table 2, the Freundlich adsorption isotherm is the best-fitting model for the experimental results. The adsorption of the dye onto biochar is characterized as a multilayer and with a heterogeneous surface. This result agrees with the morphology exhibited by the spectroscopic and SEM assay. The presence of different functional groups (e.g., aromatic rings, −C=O, −C–O–C–, −OH) on the biochar surface has a special role in increasing the adsorption capacity of methylene blue.74 The value of 1/n = 0.352 indicates that the adsorption process is favorable.75

3.4. Adsorption Kinetics

The effect of contact time is shown in Figure 7. It can be observed that the percentage of removal of methylene blue increases with increasing contact time, indicating the greater availability of active sites on the biochar surface up to saturation after 17 min. At the initial stage of the adsorption process on the biochar surface, there are many negatively charged active sites available, then sorption occurs rapidly and is normally controlled by the diffusion process from volume to surface at the beginning of adsorption. At the later stage, sorption is likely to be a controlled process due to the lower availability of active sites. The kinetic mechanism of methylene blue adsorption onto biochar can be studied indirectly using different kinetic models. In this work, three different models were used. Figure 8 shows the adjustment of the adsorption kinetic models, and Table 3 shows the parameters obtained. The pseudo-second-order model showed the best-fitting regression values (higher R2 and lower ARE values). These results suggest that chemisorption is the dominant interaction during the adsorption of methylene blue onto the biochar surface, where effective electrostatic interactions play an important role in adsorption, and a chemical reaction (e.g., complexation, ion exchange, precipitation) could be present during the adsorption process.76 Finally, the pseudo-second-order model is commonly reported as the best-fit model in the adsorption studies of different pollutants on biochar.77,78

Figure 7.

Figure 7

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MB adsorption as a function of contact time on biochar 2.

Figure 8.

Figure 8

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Adsorption kinetics for MB onto biochar 2.

Table 3. Kinetic Values Calculated for MB Sorption onto Biochar 2.

model parameters
pseudo-first order qe (mg/g) k1 (min–1) R2 ARE (%)
3.38 0.234 0.947 38.1
pseudo-second order qe(mg/g) k2(g/(mg·min)) R2 ARE (%)
2.94 0.087 0.992 8.4
intraparticle diffusion C(mg/g) kid(g/(mg·min)) R2 ARE (%)
0.147 0.571 0.949 11.9
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The stability of the adsorbents is an important parameter in developing practical applications. Figure 9 shows the results of the adsorption of MB after four cycles on the same biochar sample. After the 4th cycle, the adsorption capacity decreases by 1.0%. The percentage reduction was not significant, suggesting that the biochar was stable to a constant adsorption/desorption process after four cycles.

Figure 9.

Figure 9

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Recycling test for adsorption capacity of MB onto biochar 2.

3.5. Adsorption Thermodynamic Study

We studied the MB adsorption process onto biochar 2 at different temperatures (308, 313, 318, and 323 K). The thermodynamic parameters ΔH° and ΔS° were calculated from the slope and intercept of the linear fitting of the Arrhenius equation ln K vs 1/T (see eq 6). Table 3 lists the thermodynamic parameters of the BM adsorption process on biochar 2 and other different types of carbon-based adsorbents.79 The negative ΔG° values indicate that the removal of MB using biochar 2 is a spontaneous process. The reduction of ΔG° at higher temperatures shows the viability of adsorption at higher temperatures. The ΔH° value indicates that the process is endothermic. The endothermic type of adsorption is also an indication of chemical adsorption. Positive adsorption entropy may be interrelated with the degree of hydration of cationic dye molecules. This result suggests an increase in randomness at the adsorbent–liquid interface during MB adsorption, with possible structural changes or interactions between MB molecules and the biochar.80−82 Kumar et al. suggest that the positive change in the entropy value implies that the conscious choice of an adsorbent increases with the increase of an orderliness between the adsorbate and the adsorbent molecules.83 Results obtained to biochar 2 with other reports for removal of MB on different types of carbon-based adsorbents (Table 4) are comparable, the value of free energy in all cases is negative, and the values of ΔH and ΔS are comparable. Our results indicate that the biochar produced from natural waste is a suitable option for the removal of MB from aqueous samples.

Table 4. Thermodynamic Parameters for Removal of MB from Different Types of Carbon-Based Adsorbents.

      thermodynamic parameters
carbon-source adsorbent isotherm model temperature (K) ΔG(kJ/mol) ΔH(kJ/mol) ΔS(J/mol)
biochar 2/this work Freundlich 308 –0.95 23.54 79.5
313 –1.34    
318 –1.74    
323 –2.14    
Acacia fumosa seed83 Langmuir 303 –0.29 3.66 61.55
313 –0.23    
323 –0.17    
sucrose spherical carbon80 Redliche–Peterson 298 –1.71 16.3 0.060
308 –1.91    
318 –2.91    
Pongamia pinnata fruit hulls84 Langmuir 303 –0.269 38.88 130
313 –2.062    
323 –2.841    
chemically modified lychee seed biochar85 Langmuir 303 –9.65 18.98 94.5
313 –10.59    
323 –11.54    
Morus nigra L. leaves86 Langmuir 283 –0.87 –13.92 –30
293 –1.19    
303 –1.36    
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4. Conclusions

In this work, new biochar was produced from P. juliflora waste seeds. It was used as an alternative adsorbent to remove methylene blue from the aqueous samples. The thermogravimetric analysis showed that the biochar produced between 500 and 700 °C had greater stability than the biochar produced at 300 °C. The three biochar samples presented a macroporous and rough structure. The biochars produced at temperatures between 500 and 700 °C presented isotherm type II with H3-type hysteresis. Studies of isotherms showed that the Freundlich model is the best-fitting model for the removal of methylene blue. The kinetic results showed that the pseudo-second-order model was the best-fitting model for the sorption process. Under experimental conditions, the thermodynamic parameters indicated that the removal of MB using biochar 2 was endothermic and a spontaneous process. Finally, results indicated that P. juliflora seed waste is an alternative source to obtaining biochar with adsorption capacity of MB.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Universidad del Atlántico and Universidad Industrial de Santander.

Supporting Information Available

The Supporting Information is available free of charge at https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsomega.2c05007.

  • (Figure S1) Location of the biomass collection place, (Figure S2) P. juliflora waste seeds, (Figure S3) general scheme of the pathway reaction of the pyrolysis process, and (Figure S4) EDX spectrum of P. juliflora (PDF)

The authors declare no competing financial interest.

Supplementary Material

ao2c05007_si_001.pdf (487.2KB, pdf)

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