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. 2022 Dec 1:1–9. Online ahead of print. doi: 10.1007/s12144-022-03996-x

How the Dark Triad associated with internet gaming disorder? The serial mediation of basic psychological needs satisfaction and negative coping styles

Xuan Xu 1, Ling-feng Gao 2, Shuai-lei Lian 3, Qian Chen 1, Zong-kui Zhou 1,✉
PMCID: PMC9714411  PMID: 36471813

Abstract

According to the I-PACE model, this study focused on the role of need satisfaction and negative coping styles in the relationship between the Dark Triad (i.e., Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and narcissism) and internet gaming disorder (IGD). In a sample of 749 emerging adult gamers, a multiple mediation model with Dark Triad as the distal variable, psychological need satisfaction and negative coping style as mediating variables, and IGD as the outcome variable was tested. Results indicated that Machiavellianism and psychopathy were found to be significant predictors of IGD when mediated by psychological need satisfaction and negative coping styles. Narcissism predicts IGD only through the indirect effect of negative coping styles. The findings enhanced our understanding that Machiavellianism and psychopathy are characterized by compensatory use of internet games, as well as added new perspectives to the understanding of addiction mechanisms in narcissists.

Keywords: Dark Triad, Machiavellianism, Psychopathy, Narcissism, Internet gaming disorder, Basic psychological needs, Negative coping style

Introduction

Against the backdrop of the digital age, internet games have become a part of daily leisure activities (Kuss et al., 2017). Especially due to the COVID-19 epidemic, many people who stay at home have already participated in internet games (King et al., 2020). Currently, China has 665 million gamers, mainly emerging adults aged 18 to 25, who spend 81 minutes playing daily (Statista, 2021). Although internet games can provide fun and interaction, it also puts people at risk of internet gaming disorder (IGD; King et al., 2019). As a behavioral addiction disorder in the DSM-5, IGD refers to a behavioral pattern of excessive and compulsive use of Internet gaming (Petry et al., 2014). IGD often exposes individuals to significant distress, such as depression, anxiety, sleep disorders, and interpersonal conflicts (Männikkö et al., 2020).

The I-PACE model integrates a wide range of theoretical and experimental findings in the field of internet use disorders and provides a comprehensive theoretical framework to describe the onset and maintenance of internet use disorders (Brand et al., 2016). This model emphasizes the role of core characteristics (e.g., personality, specific needs) and cognitive-emotional factors (e.g., coping) in internet use disorders. From the I-PACE model, personality traits are a key factor that induces IGD. Individuals with vulnerable traits may initially indulge in internet games driven by motivational factors, and subsequently become accustomed to internet games as a way to cope with stress, eventually developing into IGD (Brand et al., 2019). For example, with the need to escape emotions, people with anxiety traits gradually turn to internet games as a coping mechanism, eventually leading to IGD (Biolcati et al., 2021; Plante et al., 2019). According to the I-PACE model, we examine the role of the Dark Triad (i.e., Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and narcissism) as distal factors, psychological needs, and negative coping styles as proximal factors, to understand IGD.

Dark Triad and internet gaming disorder

In recent years, there has been increasing interest in the relationship between personality traits and IGD. The role of the Big Five personality in IGD has been initially revealed (Şalvarlı & Griffiths, 2019), but the same attention needs to be paid to certain dark traits that describe the malevolent side of human nature. We aim to focus on the role of the Dark Triad as its construct is well supported, even though the composition of dark traits is still up for debate (Bonfá-Araujo et al., 2022; Muris et al., 2017). Currently, the relationships between the Dark Triad and IGD are not well understood, which has aroused particular attention. The Dark Triad refers to a group of personality traits with undesirable and antisocial characteristics, namely Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and narcissism (Paulhus & Williams, 2002). Machiavellianism describes a personality tendency to focus on the pursuit of personal goals, with manipulation and exploitation of others as a means to an end (Christie & Geis, 1970). Psychopathy is a personality trait described as persistently antisocial, lacking in empathy and remorse, and bold (Sleep et al., 2019). Narcissism originated in a mythology about Narcissus and was later summarized as a personality trait of vanity, admiration, disregard for others and arrogance (Sedikides, 2021). The Dark Triad was found to be closely related to various behavioral addictions, both offline and online (for a review, see Jauk & Dieterich, 2019; Kircaburun et al., 2019).

In cyberspace with abundant and accessible rewards, the Dark Triad was prone to developing problematic internet use (Kircaburun & Griffiths, 2018). Pioneering research has been conducted to explore the unique risk of developing IGD in the Dark Triad (Kircaburun et al., 2018). Specifically, The Dark Triad were found to indulge in perpetrating grief play (trolling behavior in games) and other antisocial behaviors in internet games (Ladanyi & Doyle-Portillo, 2017; Tang et al., 2019). For machiavellianism, internet games can be used not only for entertainment (especially violent games), but also to satisfy the need to exploit and control others (Sindermann et al., 2018; Tang et al., 2020). Individuals with high psychopathology are similarly at risk of excessive use of internet games due to high impulsivity and preference for violent content (Sindermann et al., 2018). Narcissists relish the pursuit of exaggerated power and admiration from others in games and develop IGD (Kim et al., 2008). In particular, individuals with Dark Triad may employ compensatory internet games usage when real-life needs are not fulfilled and gradually form usage expectations to avoid stress (Tang et al., 2020). For instance, in order to gain respect from others and cope with negative emotions, narcissists may continue to use internet games, leading to IGD (Di Blasi et al., 2020). Machiavellians and psychopaths pursue competition in games to satisfy the unfulfilled desire for manipulation and achievement in real life (Kircaburun et al., 2018). Therefore, the Dark Triad may be predisposing variables to IGD. According to the above evidence, we assumed that the Dark Triad was positively associated with IGD.

The mediating role of psychological needs satisfaction

The I-PACE model suggests that individuals with predisposing traits have compensatory experiences during game usage (Brand et al., 2019). The compensatory perspective helps researchers to explore the motivational factors that underpin IGD in the context of the gamer's real life (Scerri et al., 2019). Recently, a framework of motivation based on psychological needs fulfillment has gained attention (Przybylski & Weinstein, 2019). Meanwhile, the process of need satisfaction is often driven by traits (Costa et al., 2019). For example, the stability trait was positively associated with real-life need satisfaction (Şimşek & Koydemir, 2013).

Psychological needs have been suggested as being central to understanding the relationship between traits and IGD (Arpaci et al., 2018). Individuals with a certain trait may favor one or more psychological needs fulfillment (Özteke Kozan et al., 2019). With the multifactorial gamification design, games can continuously meet their psychological needs (Sailer et al., 2017). Eventually, the compensation process will lead to IGD (Kardefelt-Winther, 2014). Especially for individuals with the Dark Triad traits who exhibit psychological need deficiency (Kaufman et al., 2019).

Self-determination theory suggests that individuals have three basic psychological needs as relatedness, competence, and autonomy, which drive the various daily activities. Relatedness needs refer a desire for harmonious interpersonal relationships, competency needs reflect a sense of control over the environment, and autonomy needs focus on the freedom of psychology and behavior (Deci & Ryan, 2000). There may be one or more psychological needs deficits in real life for certain maladaptive personalities (e.g., Dark Triad; Dweck, 2017). Specifically, narcissists lacked the autonomy need satisfaction in their life, while machiavellians and psychopaths wished for more competence satisfaction (Jonason & Ferrell, 2016). Given poor interpersonal and environmental adaptability, the individuals with Dark Triad had difficulty meeting psychological needs in real life (Jonason et al., 2015). Psychological need deficiency may cause them to turn to other way (e.g., internet game) for need fulfillment. Internet games usage that fills psychological voids in real life is more likely to turn into addiction (Chen, 2019). Previous researchs have found that internet games can attract gamers with the Dark Triad traits to play consistently by satisfying social, competitive, and other needs (Kircaburun et al., 2018). Thus, it is crucial to examine the compensation model of the Dark Triad traits and IGD in terms of basic psychological needs. Given the lack of research evidence, we will explore how three basic psychological need satisfaction in real life explains the relationship between the Dark Triad and IGD.

The mediating role of negative coping styles

Coping styles were also often considered as a mediating mechanism for personality and IGD (Zhou et al., 2017). For example, individuals with high conscientiousness are more likely to adopt the problem-solving-oriented coping styles, while maladaptive traits such as neuroticism often adopted the negative coping styles (Segerstrom & Smith, 2019). Correspondingly, for individuals who adopt the negative coping style, an expectation may develop that internet game is an effective way to escape stress (Loton et al., 2016).

Negative coping styles were described as a way of dealing with pressure by avoidance and denial (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2000). Recent studies have shown that individuals with the Dark Triad exhibit more negative coping styles (Jonason et al., 2020). Pace et al. (2021) found that negative coping styles could explain why individuals with the Dark Triad are prone to developing various types of behavioral addictions. However, to date no studies examined that the Dark Triad could be connected to IGD via negative coping styles.

In addition, psychological need satisfaction may not only be directly related to IGD. Driven by unmet psychological needs, individuals will resort to more negative coping styles (Neufeld & Malin, 2021). In the perspective of self-determination theory, unmet psychological needs can cause individuals to gradually develop rigid patterns of behavior, such as negative coping styles. (Vansteenkiste et al., 2013). Meanwhile, needs dissatisfaction could motivate and reinforce the pursuit of external goals (i.e., internet games) as a coping mechanism (Sheldon & Anderson, 2011). As previously stated, the negative coping styles increases the risk of developing IGD. Thus, negative coping styles can be used as a pattern of maladaptive behavior induced by unmet needs, explaining the relationship between psychological need satisfaction and IGD. Similarly, drawing upon I-PACE, for individuals with susceptible traits, the early stage may lead to IGD due to compensating for unmet psychological needs, and the later stage may orient to IGD due to the formation of habitual negative coping styles (Brand et al., 2019). The developmental stages assumed by the I-PACE model also suggest that basic psychological need satisfaction may be indirectly linked to IGD through negative coping styles. Such a mechanism of intrinsic need compensation followed by external coping change has not yet been tested on the Dark Triad. Therefore, this study examined the question of whether basic psychological needs satisfaction and negative coping styles sequentially mediate the relationship between the Dark Triad and IGD.

The present study

By and large, the Dark Triad traits may be the emerging core factor in understanding IGD. However, previous studies have considered how the individual with the Dark Triad was pushed into IGD from the perspective of game motivation (Kircaburun et al., 2018; Tang et al., 2020). It is also important to examine the pull toward IGD through the daily basic needs satisfaction (Mills et al., 2018). Following this rationale, this study first focused on the mediating role of basic psychological needs satisfaction between the Dark Triad and IGD. In addition, while considering psychological needs, negative coping styles were also a possible mediating mechanism to explain the relationship between the Dark Triad traits and IGD. Guided by the I-PACE model (Brand et al., 2019), exposure to low satisfaction with daily psychological needs can reinforce the formation of habitual negative coping, thereby facilitating the development of IGD. The multiple mediation model tested in this study was shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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Measurement model

Methods

Participants and procedure

Participants were recruited through an online advertisement posted on QQ, WeChat, and Sina Weibo. The inclusion criteria are Chinese internet gamers (used internet games in the last six months) and undergraduate students aged 18–25. The investigation started in March 2020 and ended in August 2021. In total, 849 participants completed the questionnaires. Questionnaires with regular responses, repeated responses, and incorrect answers to trap questions (an instruction to choose a specific answer) were deleted. The final sample consisted of 740 undergraduate gamers (males = 63.6%). Of these, 151 (20.4%) were freshmen, 167 (22.6%) were sophomores, 157 (21.2%) were juniors, and 265 (35.8%) were seniors or higher. It was determined by Monte Carlo method that a statistical power of 0.8 could be achieved at α = 0.05 for a sample of n = 419 (Schoemann et al., 2017).

Measures

Dark Triad

The Dirty Dozen (DD) was used (Jonason & Webster, 2010), which is a validated and proven measurement for Dark Triad. The DD comprises 12 items on a 7-point Likert scale from “1 = strongly disagree” to “7 = strongly agree”, four items for each dimension (i.e., Machiavellianism, psychopathy, narcissism). The higher the score on each dimension, the higher the level of the corresponding dark trait.

Basic psychological needs

The Chinese version of the Basic Psychological Needs Scales (C-BPNS) was used (Gagné, 2003), which comprises 19 items on a 7-point Likert scale from “1 = strongly disagree” to “7 = strongly agree”. The C-BPNS measures three psychological needs in real life: relatedness, competence, and autonomy. The lower the score of each dimension, the lower corresponding need satisfaction.

Negative coping styles

The Simplified Coping Style Questionnaire was used (Xie, 1998), which was divided into two subscales: positive coping styles (PCS) and negative coping styles (NCS). For the aim of the current study, only the negative coping styles scale was used. The NCS comprises 8 items on a 4-point Likert scale from “0 = never” to “4 = always”. Higher scores reflect the level of the negative coping style.

Internet gaming disorder

The Internet Gaming Disorder Questionnaire was used (Petry et al., 2014), which assessed the nine criteria for IGD. This measure comprises 9 items on a 5-point Likert scale from “1 = strongly disagree” to “9 = strongly agree”. Scores reflect the extent of online game addiction.

Data analysis

SPSS Statistics 25 was used for descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation analysis. The multiple mediation analyses via using Mplus 7.4 software (Model 80; Stride et al., 2015), were conducted with each Dark Triad as independent variables, each psychological need satisfaction as first mediating variables, negative coping styles as subsequent mediator variables, IGD as the outcome variable, gender as a control variable. The bootstrapping method with 95% bias-corrected confidence intervals (N = 10,000) was used to reduce the risk of biased results.

Results

In the present study, the descriptive statistics, variance inflation factors (VIF), internal consistency coefficient (Cronbach's Alpha) and correlation of each variable are shown in Table 1. The VIF value for all independent variables is less than 5, indicating that the collinearity problem is not serious (Shrestha, 2020).

Table 1.

Descriptive statistics and correlation

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1. Gaming disorder –
2. Machiavellianism 0.43*** –
3. Psychopathy 0.40*** 0.64*** –
4. Narcissism 0.15*** 0.31*** 0.11** –
5. Competence satisfaction  − 0.30***  − 0.29***  − 0.38***  − 0.04 –
6. Relatedness satisfaction  − 0.20***  − 0.30***  − 0.41***  − 0.03 0.61*** –
7. Autonomy satisfaction  − 0.23***  − 0.28***  − 0.33***  − 0.09* 0.69*** 0.59*** –
8. Negative coping styles 0.33*** 0.37*** 0.30*** 0.23***  − 0.33***  − 0.20***  − 0.27*** –
M 23.75 11.15 9.93 19.59 26.40 33.48 25.07 19.49
SD 7.41 5.97 5.43 5.43 5.17 6.31 4.92 4.46
Skewness 0.17 0.59 1.03  − 0.74 0.48 0.14 0.01 0.15
Kurtosis  − 0.47  − 0.53 0.53 0.35 0.41 0.09 0.15  − 0.14
Cronbach’s alpha 0.88 0.90 0.86 0.88 0.64 0.75 0.61 0.76
VIF – 1.95 1.89 1.18 1.88 2.29 2.13 1.27
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* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001

As shown in Fig. 2, the multiple mediation model of the Dark Triad (Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and narcissism) to predict IGD was partially supported. The results of the direct effect show: (I) Machiavellianism negatively predicted competence (β =  − 0.10, SE = 0.04, p = 0.02), relatedness (β =  − 0.09, SE = 0.04, p = 0.02), and autonomy (β =  − 0.10, SE = 0.05, p = 0.02) need satisfaction. Machiavellianism positively predicted negative coping styles (β = 0.22, SE = 0.05, p < 0.001) and IGD (β = 0.22, SE = 0.05, p < 0.001). (II) Psychopathy negatively predicted competence (β =  − 0.31, SE = 0.04, p < 0.001), relatedness (β =  − 0.31, SE = 0.04, p < 0.001), and autonomy (β =  − 0.31, SE = 0.04, p < 0.001) need satisfaction. Psychopathy positively predicted IGD (β =  − 0.25, SE = 0.06, p < 0.001), but not negative coping styles (β = 0.06, p = 0.20). (III) The relationship between narcissism and three needs satisfaction was not significant. Narcissism positively predicted negative coping styles (β = 0.15, SE = 0.04, p < 0.001), but not IGD (β = 0.02, p = 0.57). (IV) Of the three needs, only the competence satisfaction negatively predicted IGD (β =  − 0.17, SE = 0.05, p < 0.001). Negative coping styles positively predicted IGD (β = 0.14, SE = 0.04, p < 0.001).

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

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The multiple mediation model. Note: All variables in the model are observed variables. The value on the horizontal line is the standardized path coefficient. On the left, the three coefficients describe when the independent variables are machiavellianism, psychopathy, and narcissism. In the dummy code for gender, male = 0, female = 1. For clarity, non-significant paths are hidden. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001

The results of the indirect effect show: Machiavellianism was indirectly associated with IGD via three needs satisfaction and negative coping styles. All indirect paths in the model are significant, except for the single mediating effect of relatedness and autonomy need, which is not significant. Similarly, the sequential mediation model for psychopathy predicting IGD was significant. For the single mediation model, only the autonomy need, relatedness need, and negative coping styles were not significant. However, narcissism only indirectly predicts IGD through negative coping styles. Finally, the total mediation model predicted 28.4% of the variance in IGD. Table 2 contains the results of the indirect effects.

Table 2.

Standardized estimates of indirect effects of the tested model (n = 749)

Path Effect SE 95% CI
Mach → IGD (total effect) 0.058 0.016 [0.030, 0.094]
Mach → CS → IGD 0.017 0.010 [0.004, 0.036]
Mach → NCS → IGD 0.037 0.009 [0.018, 0.059]
Mach → CS → NCS → IGD 0.001 0.001 [0.001, 0.003]
Mach → AS → NCS → IGD 0.001 0.001 [0.001, 0.003]
Mach → RS → NCS → IGD 0.001 0.001 [0.001, 0.003]
Psych → IGD (total effect) 0.068 0.018 [0.037, 0.107]
Psych → CS → IGD 0.056 0.016 [0.025, 0.092]
Psych → CS → NCS → IGD 0.004 0.001 [0.002, 0.008]
Psych → AS → NCS → IGD 0.004 0.001 [0.002, 0.008]
Psych → RS → NCS → IGD 0.004 0.001 [0.002, 0.008]
Narci → NCS → IGD (total effect) 0.025 0.009 [0.010, 0.046]
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Mach Machiavellianism, Psych Psychopathy, Narci Narcissism, CS Competence satisfaction, AS Autonomy satisfaction, RS Relatedness satisfaction, NCS Negative coping styles. Only significant pathways are shown in the table

Discussion

This study constructed a sequential mediation model to explore the psychological mechanisms underlying the link between the Dark Triad and IGD, taking into account psychological needs and negative coping styles. The results showed that Machiavellianism and psychopathy could predict IGD through sequential mediation of basic psychological needs satisfaction and negative coping styles, and narcissism could predict IGD only via the negative coping styles.

Consistent with the I-PACE model (Brand et al., 2019) and previous studies (Kircaburun et al., 2018), the present study identified Machiavellianism, psychopathy and narcissism all as susceptible personalities for IGD. The Dark Triad, which summarized the malevolent side of human nature, demonstrates low satisfaction of psychological needs in daily life (Kaufman et al., 2019). The disinhibitory virtual game world becomes a convenient way for them to get instant gratification. In short, what the individual with the Dark Triad loses in their daily lives, then gets back on the internet.

In models of Machiavellianism or psychopathy predicting IGD, we found a compensatory effect due to unmet psychological needs, and subsequent cognitive-behavioral changes (the formation of negative coping styles). In the early stages of IGD, individuals with high Machiavellian or psychopathy, experienced insufficient satisfaction of basic psychological needs due to their personality defects and real-life constraints. In other words, they have difficulty interacting well with the environment/others and gaining sufficient competence due to their indifferent, confrontational and manipulative characteristics. Given the maladaptive character of Machiavellians and psychopaths, for them, these needs are difficult to meet in real life. Therefore, they used the social, competitive, and exploratory functions of games to compensate for their psychological needs, which is consistent with previous studies (Kircaburun et al., 2018). In the later stages of maintaining IGD, with constant repetition and reinforcement, this alternative compensation through Internet gaming was gradually solidified into the negative coping styles. Internet games became the primary way of coping with stress and problems (i.e., unmet psychological needs), contributing to the progressive development of IGD. Similar mechanism processes were found in the study of Ataşalar and Michou (2019). In addition, competence needs satisfaction more robustly predicted IGD than the other needs. This suggests that untalented feelings in real life were more likely to be pulled into internet games, especially for Machiavellianism and psychopathy. It should also be noted that psychopaths have lower psychological needs satisfaction than Machiavellians. Previous studies found that psychopathy is the “darkest” trait in Dark Triad. Of the three personalities, psychopathy may be the only trait that exhibits a rapid life history strategy (Jonason et al., 2010). Psychopathy showed a stronger correlation with antisocial behavior and emotional deficiencies than machiavellianism and narcissism (Jonason & Krause, 2013; Szabó et al., 2018). The present study extends this finding that psychopathy was more likely to be susceptible to IGD due to unmet psychological needs in real life.

In addition, there was no significant association between narcissism and unmet psychological needs. Contrary to our hypothesis, psychological needs cannot mediate the relationship between narcissism and IGD or narcissism and negative coping styles. Previous research had found that higher narcissism was not only unrelated to the fast life history strategy but also acted as a performance facilitator for need fulfillment in real life, at least to some extent (Sedikides, 2021). That is, it was difficult for narcissists who are confident, bold and self-centered to experience low satisfaction with basic psychological needs. It makes sense that the compensation model for narcissism and IGD is not supported. But narcissism was not unrelated to IGD. Rather, we found that negative coping styles can mediate the relationship between narcissism and IGD, which is consistent with research on gambling addiction (Pace et al., 2021). This suggests that narcissists may try to use internet games as an opportunity to avoid stress or increase their sense of mastery. Based on this, it is also necessary to examine in the future whether individuals with high narcissism are more engaged in games, especially when they feel stressed or lose a sense of control. At the same time, narcissism can be further divided into grandiose and vulnerable narcissism. Di Blasi et al (2020) found that the compensation model was effective in explaining the relationship between vulnerable narcissism and IGD. We speculated that the vulnerable subtype of narcissism may overuse games because of low need satisfaction in daily life (Sedikides, 2021).

Overall, we found mediation mechanisms of IGD in Machiavellianism and psychopathy, which comprise of realistic needs compensation and dysfunctional coping formation. Narcissism causes IGD only because of negative coping styles, without the unmet needs in real life. Such findings offer the possibility of personalized prevention and treatment for IGD, and enrich our understanding of the Dark Triad and IGD. However, this study is not without limitations. First, the data are from the cross-sectional questionnaire, which cannot provide strong support for causality conclusions. The longitudinal or mixed approach could be used in the future. Second, there are more dark traits or subtypes that should be considered, such as sadism or vulnerable narcissism. Third, basic psychological needs can be further distinguished as satisfied and frustrated, or both online and offline satisfaction can be considered. Fourth, the internal consistency coefficients of the C-BPNS were low, especially for the subscales of autonomous needs. This suggests that the results on autonomous needs should be viewed with caution and should receive further validation. Finally, self-report methods may suffer from biases such as social desirability, in particular to the Dark Triad traits measure.

Despite its limitations, the present study has some strengths. We initially depict a compensatory trajectory about the development of the dark triad into IGD. Negative coping mechanisms based on unmet real-life needs can lead to IGD, especially for some maladaptive traits such as Machiavellianism and psychopathy. The findings provide evidence for a compensatory rather than a pathologically compulsive model of IGD. Meanwhile, where the motivation to use internet games is grounded in some unmet psychological needs and where games alleviate stress, some individuals with susceptible traits may devote their time to internet games which leads to IGD. This compensation model can be usefully replicated and expanded in the future. Notably, we found that highly narcissistic individuals seem to be less "vulnerable" in real life, which is reflected in the failure of the compensatory effect of unmet real-life needs. This may provide ideas for the advantages and heterogeneity of narcissism compared to other dark traits. Lastly, if the Dark Triad is prominent, the improvement measures for real-life feelings of target restriction, incompetence and interpersonal frustration, as well as intervention that targets coping styles, could be considered by clinicians to reduce the progression to IGD.

Authors contribution

Zong-kui Zhou, Ling-feng Gao and Xuan Xu conceived the idea of the study; Xuan Xu and Ling-feng Gao analyzed the data; Xuan Xu, Ling-feng Gao, Shuai-lei Lian, Qian Chen and Zong-kui Zhou interpreted the results; Xuan Xu and Ling-feng Gao wrote the paper; all authors discussed the results and revised the manuscript.

Data availability

All data included in this study are available upon request by contact with the corresponding author.

Declarations

Ethics approval

The research was approved by the Institutional Review Boards at the Central China Normal University, PRC, and APA ethical standards were followed in the conduct of the study.

Competing interests

The authors have no financial or proprietary interests in any material discussed in this article.

Footnotes

Publisher's note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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Data Availability Statement

All data included in this study are available upon request by contact with the corresponding author.

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