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. 2022 Dec 1;233(12):510. doi: 10.1007/s11270-022-05984-0

Municipal Wastewater Treatment uses Vertical Flow Followed by Horizontal Flow in a Two-Stage Hybrid-Constructed Wetland Planted with Calibanus hookeri and Canna indica (Cannaceae)

Krishna Kumar Singh 1,✉, Rakesh Chandra Vaishya 1
PMCID: PMC9717559  PMID: 36504546

Abstract

The utilization of hybrid-constructed wetland systems has recently expanded due to more rigorous municipal wastewater discharge and also complex wastewaters treated in hybrid-constructed wetlands (HCWs). A lab-scale two-stage experimental setup of vertical flow followed by horizontal flow hybrid-constructed wetland (VFHCW-HFHCW) configuration was built. First-stage vertical flow hybrid-constructed wetland reactor with the surface area was 1963.49 cm2 and second-stage horizontal flow hybrid-constructed wetland reactor with the surface area was 2025 cm2. The HCW unit was planted with two type plants: Calibanus hookeri and Canna indica (Cannaceae). Influent Municipal wastewater flow rate 112.32 l/day, hydraulic loading rate (HLR) 0.55 m/day, and hydraulic retention time of 1 day. The efficiency was evaluated in municipal wastewater quality improvement and physico-chemical analysis in our laboratory. The removal rate after the second-stage horizontal flow of BOD3 at 27 °C, COD, TSS, TP, NH3-N, and NO3-N reached 92.75%, 89.90%, 85.45%, 88.83%, 99.09%, and 96.05%, respectively. The results shown after both stage hybrid-constructed wetland VFHCW-HFHCW, treated effluent of Municipal wastewater produced high-quality effluent which may be reused in gardening, agriculture, and flushing in toilet purpose according to Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) code for practices. However, in the future, hybrid-constructed wetlands could be standards design criteria developing and enhancing the performance standards and economic meets both to make more popular technology of the hybrid-constructed wetland (HCW).

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11270-022-05984-0.

Keywords: Hybrid-constructed wetlands, Vertical flow, Horizontal flow, Municipal wastewater treatment, Reuse

Introduction

All over the world, many countries face freshwater problems, and even India is not exempted. As per the CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board) study, India’s present scenario is approximately 72,368 MLD Municipal wastewater generation all over countries, and approximately 40,527 MLD untreated Municipal wastewater generation is discharged directly to surface water bodies (CPCB, 2021). It has led to deteriorating aquatic life of surface water quality, threatened human health, environment, and major water-borne diseases. India faces a problem hues gap exists between treated Municipal wastewater and untreated Municipal wastewater because of lack of funding and management create this large gap (CPCB, 2019 & ENVIS n.d.). In view of capital cost limitation and minimizing large gap can use the less capital cost and less maintenance technique for the treatment of Municipal wastewater.

Various advanced municipal wastewater treatment technologies are the solution in this context. Some conventional treatment technology such as stabilization pond, anaerobic filter, green filter, septic tank, sand filtration, and activated sludge process are still in use. Nowadays, a new low capital cost, less maintenance cost, and eco-friendly constructed wetland (CWs) is becoming popular for the municipal wastewater treatment (Abidi et al., 2009; Vymazal & Masa, 2003; Molle et al., 2008; Kouki et al., 2009; Brix0 & Arias, 2005; Zhang et al., 2014). Constructed wetlands (CWs) are the new artificially engineered system that remove the pollutants load from various types of wastewater (Masi et al., 2002; Brix & Arias, 2005; Vymazal, 2005; Kouki et al., 2009; Dotro et al., 2015). It has been found to effectively remove pollutants like organic and inorganic contamination, nutrients, and pathogens as well as transmitted virus in wastewater bodies and pathogens (Lesage, 2006 & 2007; Keffala & Ghrabi, 2005; Tanner et al., 2012; Haiming et al., 2013; Dotro et al., 2015). Nowadays, mainly horizontal flow or vertical flow hybrid-constructed wetlands (HFHCW or VFHCW) are more used individually for the treatment of municipal and industrial wastewaters (Karathanasis et al., 2003; García et al. 2005; Wang et al., 2012; Abou-Elela & Hellal, 2012). Horizontal flow or vertical flow hybrid-constructed wetlands (HFHCW or VFHCW) have been successfully used in industries like fertilizer, textile, dairy, tannery, food and beverages, and pulp & paper etc. to remove varieties of pollutants (Abou-Elela & Hellal, 2012; Zurita et al., 2009; Yaseen & Scholz, 2019; Avila, 2020). The removal mechanism may include ion exchange, soil adsorption, and uptake by plants, chemical precipitation, and anaerobic or aerobic microbial growth or decomposed activity (Karathanasis et al., 2003; Keffala & Ghrabi, 2005; Klomjek & Nitisoravut, 2005; Molle et al., 2008; Lesage, 2006; Zhang et al., 2009). Constructed wetland (CW) treatment performance can be increased using anaerobic and aerobic processes (Lesage, 2006; Lesage et al., 2007).

The study focuses on the development of one lab scale at two-stage vertical flow followed by horizontal flow hybrid-constructed wetland (VFHCW-HFHCW). In this configuration, the first-stage VFHCW is circular shape filled with integrated gravel, sand, and soil for better organic and inorganic nutrient, phosphate uptake, and oxidation of ammonia under aerobic condition; the second-stage HFHCW is square shaped filled with integrated gravel, sand, cold drink plastic bottle chips, and soil for effective de nitrification for better removal of nitrogen, BOD, COD, and TP respectively. The configured two-stage VFHCW-HFHCW were planted with two different kinds of plant species, such as Calibanus Hookeries and Canna Indica red color (Cannaceae). These wetlands were used to treat actual municipal wastewater which collected from the outside of Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, Allahabad Prayagraj, India, campus. The developed hybrid-constructed wetland system’s performance was evaluated for 4 months in order to evaluate actual municipal wastewater treatment performance.

By introducing new techniques, this study addresses the few key concerns with the technologies currently in use for treating municipal wastewater: (i) reducing the cost of an external mechanical system-based aeration with algal-based passive aeration for pollutant oxidation, algal uptake of pollutants, and developing energy-efficient processes; (ii) replacing various costly advanced STPs techniques with cheap and eco-friendly hybrid integrated layer of constructed wetland; (iii) instead of independent and segregated treatment approaches, a synergistic approach to fully treating organic and nutrient pollutants in a single system is preferred; and (iv) zero sludge generation from wastewater in this treatment system. Also at present, there is lack of proper guidelines in our country India for the design criteria, flow regulation, and hydraulic retention time (HRTs) for the constructed wetland process. If these guidelines are in place then in future more and more ULBs and small town areas can select the most suitable hybrid-constructed wetlands configuration with eco-friendly technology for the treatment of sewage and grey wastewater.

Materials and Methods

Experimental Setup

A lab-scale two-stage experimental setup of vertical flow followed by horizontal flow hybrid-constructed wetland (VFHCW-HFHCW) configuration consisted of one circular and one square polycarbonate compact transparent 6-mm-thickness Sheet (PCTS). PCTS has high-impact strength, high-temperature resistance, and ultraviolet (UV) protection. The circular box has an inside diameter of 50 cm and depth of 55 cm, and the square box has inside dimensions length, width, and depth 45 cm each. In circular vertical flow and square horizontal flow, hybrid-constructed wetland reactor layered with the gavel of size 16–20 mm, 10 mm, and 4.75 mm; sand of grade 2.36 mm, 1.18 mm, 600 µm, and 300 µm; and with soil from the bottom to top in Fig. 1 (CPCB, 2019). Before filling the gravel in both stages of the wetland reactor, gravel is properly washed by de-ionized water. In second-stage wetland placed a layered of cold drink plastic bottles chips between 300 µm sand and soil. Flow path from vertical circular to the horizontal square stage to be maintained by gravimetric flow and from vertical circular stage to horizontal square stage connected with polyvinyl chloride pipes (PVC) of diameter 14 mm. The dimensions and operating conditions of hybrid-constructed wetland reactors are given in Table 1.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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Lab-scale two-stage experimental setup of hybrid-constructed wetland

Table 1.

Dimensions and operating conditions of hybrid-constructed wetland reactors

Stage Type Diameter/length × width
of flow (cm)		 Depth (cm) Height of flow (cm) Surface area (cm2) Temperature (0C)
1st Circular VFCHCW 50 55 15 1963.49 15–42
2nd Square HFSHCW 45 × 45 45 15 2025 15–42
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Effective Volume of Hybrid-Constructed Wetland Bed and Plantation

The total volume of the first-stage circular VFHCW reactor was 107.99 L and the second-stage square HFHCW reactor was 91.125 L. In the hybrid-constructed wetland, the actual volume of wastewater was filled in the wetland reactor determined by taking a known volume of wastewater and filling the hybrid-constructed wetland bed and knowing the quantity of wastewater filled until the flows first drop through the outlet pipe. The adequate volume in the first-stage circular VFHCW reactor was 28.45 L and the second-stage square HFHCW reactor was 28.37 L. The two different vegetation plant species used, such as Calibanus hookeri and Canna indica red color (Cannaceae), were available in the Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad (MNNIT), Prayagraj India Campus. The vegetation plant can absorb a high level of pollutant and organic load from municipal wastewater. The vegetation plants roots were washed with the deionized water 2–3 times. Both reactors were planted with 4 Calibanus hookeri and 2 Canna indica red color (Cannaceae), with heights of Calibanus hookeri in between 20 and 35 cm and Canna indica red color (Cannaceae) in between 30 and 45 cm respectively (Brix & Arias, 2005; Tanveer Saeed et al., 2021).

Sampling and Physico-chemical Analysis

Municipal wastewater was collected from Prayagraj city, India at latitude 25° 29′ 40.8372″ N, and longitude 81° 51′ 53.2044″ E every week and stored in a tank. After that, municipal wastewater was pumped through Watson Marlow peristaltic pump at the rate of 25–35 rpm 8 h daily in these reactors. Inlet raw wastewater and treated wastewater samples were collected daily from stage 1 outlet and stage 2 outlet of the hybrid wetland reactor in Fig. 1. The collected samples were analyzed on regular basis for almost 4 months in the first phase from February 2021 to May 2021. Due to second-wave COVID-19, Institute was closed officially during June 2021 to August 2021, that’s why the experimental analysis stopped. Therefore, during the rainy season, the analysis was not shown here in the research. The samples were examined for inlet raw wastewater and treated wastewater through both stages. The physico-chemical parameters analysis are pH, total suspended solids (TSS), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD3 at 27 °C), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total phosphate (TP), nitrate nitrogen (NO3−-N), and ammonia nitrogen (NH4-N). The pH value was measured using HI 2210 pH meter. TSS value was calculated using Matrix eco solution-111 Hot air oven followed by Wensar electronic balance, BOD3 at 27 °C was measured using MKSI BOD incubator, and COD was measured using HACH company closed reflux COD meter. While TP and NO3−-N were measured by using LAB INDIA analytical UV/VIS double beam spectrophotometer, and NH4-N was measured by using universal Kjeldahl digestion and distillation apparatus. All the physico-chemical parameters analysis procedure was followed by standard methods for examining water and wastewater, 23rd edition (APHA 2017).

All the experimental data analysis was carried using Microsoft Excel 2013 version and Origin Pro 2021b version. The removal efficiency of the pollutant in percentage as calculated by following Eq. (1).

%R=ci-ceci 1

where Ci initial concentration in mg/l and Ce effluent concentration in mg/l.

Results and Discussion

Influent Municipal Wastewater Characterization

In this research, the minimum, maximum, and average characterization of influent municipal wastewater to the hybrid-constructed wetland are shown in the Table 2. The characterization results indicated that the influent concentration value of BOD3 at 27 °C, COD, TSS, TP, NO3−-N, and NH4-N varied during the study period. The pH value and organic loading rate also varied during the study period. The influent concentration value of heavy metals such as fluoride, iron, and chromium was measured during the study period but did not exceed 0.01 mg/l. The analysis was conducted after achieving a stable removal rate in the second week of February 2021.

Table 2.

Characteristics of influent municipal wastewater of four month operation

S.N Parameters unit Minimum value Maximum value Average value + St. dv
1 pH – 7.45 8.3 7.89 ± 0.35
2 BOD3 at 27 °C mg/l 49.8 119.2 103.75 ± 29.75
3 COD mg/l 224 800 546.47 ± 235.71
4 TSS mg/l 140 597 275.75 ± 191.62
5 TP mg/l 5.38 30.72 15.138 ± 10.44
6 NO3−-N mg/l 3.694 7.573 4.478 ± 3.094
7 NH4-N mg/l 2.52 17.96 13.474 ± 3.776
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pH Analysis

The observed pH values in the two-stage hybrid-constructed wetland in which VFHCW followed HFHCW are shown in Fig. 2 and data were given in the SI Table 1. The average pH of influent municipal wastewater was at about 7.89 ± 0.35, which decreased slightly in the effluent of first-stage circular VFHCW to 7.6 and also slightly in the effluent of second-stage square HFHCW to 7.59. The pH of integrated sand media was 7.54 for both stages of HCW. The formation of volatile fatty acids as a result of anaerobic breakdown of complex organics present in wastewater by microbes resulted in the lower average pH of VFHCW and HFHCW. The accumulation of protons produced during organic matter oxidation also contributed to the pH decrease. It may happen to start the degradation process of municipal wastewater due to increment in alkalinity.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

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pH value of influent municipal wastewater and effluent of VFHCW and HFHCW

BOD3 at 27 °C and COD Removal Study

The aerobic microbial degradation and sedimentation processes are thought to be responsible for BOD and COD removal in vegetated submerged wetlands. Microbial growth on media surface removes soluble organic compounds, which are then attached to plant roots and rhizomes. Figures 3 and show the BOD3 and COD concentration in two-stage VFHCW followed HFHCW effluents Fig. 4. The concentration value of BOD and COD of influent, effluent of VFHCW, and effluent of HFHCW was shown in SI Table 2 and SI Table 3. In terms of BOD3 and COD, the results reveal that lab-scale setup units are very effective at removing contaminants. However, the average surface organic loading rate in the two-stage hybrid wetland was 26.35 g BOD3/m2/day and 144.11 g COD/m2/day respectively while in the second stage, square HFHCW removal efficiency was reached 92.75% and 89.90% with an average treated effluent concentration 3.82 mg/l and 45.62 mg/l for BOD3 and COD respectively. The BOD3 and COD removal efficiency was found to be stable beginning with the fourth and third weeks of operation of the first-stage VFHCW, and beginning with the end of the second and first weeks of operation of the second-stage HFHCW. At this period, plant growth in the first-stage VFHCW was 35–56 cm for Canna Indica red color and 22–32 cm for Calibanus hookeries, and 15–26 cm for Canna Indica red color and 6–14 cm for Calibanus hookeries in the second-stage HFHCW. This effective removal depends on the amalgamation of physical and microbial activity. Because in a hybrid-constructed wetland, the physical phenomenon mechanism allows filtering the water through low porosity of constructed wetland. The solid organic traps through the bed for the long hydraulic retention time, so that these organic traps in the presence of sunlight and through soil and vegetation plant allow to biodegradation of the organic matter (Thalla et al., 2019). These removal rates are high because of the retention of organic and inorganic solid materials on the topsoil bed and rapid decomposition in aerobic conditions (Yaseen & Scholz, 2019; Karathanasis et al., 2003). Some organic solid with the wastewater through the low porosity of gravel settles down to the bed of the hybrid-constructed wetland, and it decomposes in anaerobic conditions and through the roots of the vegetable plants, in the both aerobic and anaerobic conditions removal of organic matter and reduction by bacteria and microbes taken place (Karathanasis et al., 2003; Zhang et al., 2014). From the other studies of wetlands, our two-stage hybrid-constructed wetland shows better BOD and COD removal efficiency.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

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BOD3 at 27 °C concentrations in influent municipal wastewater and effluent of VFHCW and HFHCW

Fig. 4.

Fig. 4

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COD concentrations in influent municipal wastewater and effluent of VFHCW and HFHCW

Total Suspended Solid Removal Study

Removing total suspended solid (TSS) is a significant physical phenomenon for treating municipal wastewater, in contrast to the results obtained in the reduction of BOD and COD for two-stage lab-scale VFHCW and HFHCW. The concentrations of total suspended solids (TSS) in the two-stage hybrid-constructed wetland circular VFHCW followed by square HFHCW effluent and influent of the Municipal wastewater are shown in SI Table 4 and graph was shown in Fig. 5. The results were observed that the average removal rate in percentage in the first-stage circular VFHCW was reached to 75.09% with an average treated effluent quality of suspended solid reached to 96.47 mg/l while in the second stage, square HFHCW was reached to 85.45% with an average treated effluent quality of suspended solid 37.32 mg/l. These effective removal of suspended solids filtered through the surface flow and roots of the Calibanus hookeries and Canna indica red color plants in the hybrid-constructed wetland. Physical processes like sedimentation and filtration, which are used in accordance with aerobic and anaerobic microbial degradation inside the substrate, are the main methods used to remove TSS (Spangler et al., 2019; Avila, 2020). For the lab-scale plant, the integrated graded gravel, sand, and soil substrate along with the vegetation improved treatment efficiency (Abou-Elela & Hellal, 2012; Lesage et al., 2007). The high TSS removal rates found in this study are comparable to those found in previous research. These results were significant because of physical phenomenon for removal of solid and small particles settling plant’s stems and roots play a significant role.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 5

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TSS concentrations in influent municipal wastewater and effluent of VFHCW and HFHCW

Removal Study of Total Phosphorous

The physico-chemical process associated with phosphorous removal mechanism in a hybrid-constructed wetland occurred by precipitation with metals, adsorption from the substrate, and vegetable plant roots taken for the growth (Lesage et al., 2007; Molle et al., 2008). Phosphorus that is soluble will flow with the flow in subsurface flow wetlands, but phosphorus that is linked to particulate matter will be caught and removed by filtration and interception systems built into the wetland bed (Spangler et al., 2019; Avila, 2020). In the lab, the phosphorous is measured as PO4-P, and concentration results were shown in SI Table 5 and graph shown in Fig. 6 shows increment in the phosphorus removal rate indicates the biological activity as the substrate and algal uptake for the growth. However, decreased phosphorus removal rate indicates that adsorption takes over the sites with an increase in time. The total phosphorous (TP) concentration in a two-stage hybrid-constructed wetland circular VFHCW followed by square HFHCW effluent, and influent of the Municipal wastewater is shown in Fig. 6. Moreover, the results were observed that the average removal rate in percentage in the first-stage circular VFHCW was reached to 80.84% with an average treated effluent quality of suspended solid reached to 2.52 mg/l while in the second stage, square HFHCW was reached to 88.83% with an average treated effluent quality of suspended solid 1.56 mg/l. Thus for the phosphorous removal, the role of vegetation plants and oxygen in a two-stage hybrid-constructed wetland circular VFHCW followed by square HFHCW is most appropriate Fig. 7 and Fig. 8.

Fig. 6.

Fig. 6

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TP concentrations in influent municipal wastewater and effluent of VFHCW and HFHCW

Fig. 7.

Fig. 7

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NH4-N concentrations in influent municipal wastewater and effluent of VFCHCW and HFSHCW

Fig. 8.

Fig. 8

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NO3-N concentrations in influent municipal wastewater and effluent of VFHCW and HFHCW

Removal study of Ammonia Nitrogen (NH3-N) and Nitrate Nitrogen (NO3.−-N)

The sewage wastewater contains one of the significant pollutants, nitrogen, which can cause the toxicity effect to the surviving aquatic organism. In sewage wastewater, there exists inorganic and organic forms. Nitrogen in the inorganic forms is nitrate (NO3−), nitrite (NO2−), ammonium (NH4), and in the gaseous form of nitrous oxide (N2O), nitrogen gas (N2), and free ammonia (Masi et al., 2002; Karathanasis et. al., 2003; Effendi et al., 2020). Although in the organic form of nitrogen are urea, peptide in amino acid forms. In the hybrid-constructed wetland, nitrogen removal was done by transforming biological processes such as nitrification, denitrification ammonification, reduction of nitrate, assimilation of biomass matter, and uptake by plant roots (Karathanasis et al., 2003; Wang et al., 2012; Haiming et al., 2013). The transformation of nitrogen is shown in the schematic diagram Fig. 9.

Fig. 9.

Fig. 9

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Nitrogen transformation in hybrid-constructed wetland

The ammonia nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen concentrations are variation of effluent and influent of the sewage wastewater in the two-stage hybrid-constructed wetland circular VFHCW followed by square HFHCW shown in SI Table 6 and SI Table 7 respectively and graph was shown in the Fig. 7 and Fig. 8. The results were observed in the two-stage hybrid wetland with effective removal of inorganic nitrogen in terms of ammonia nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen. The average removal rate of ammonia nitrogen through Kjeldahl nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen through absorption process in the percentage in first-stage circular VFCHCW reached to 94.64% and 88.63% with an average treated effluent value of 0.64 mg/l and 0.613 mg/l respectively shown in Fig. 7 and Fig. 8. In contrast, square HFHCW removal rate was reached to 99.09% and 96.05% in the second stage with an average treated effluent value of 0.105 mg/l and 0.21 mg/l respectively shown in Fig. 7 and Fig. 8. The removal performance results were better when treated from both-stage hybrid wetlands. Performance studies were done on first-stage circular VFHCW and second-stage square HFHCW planted with two different types of vegetable plants species such as Calibanus hookeries and Canna indica red color.

Vegetation in Hybrid-Constructed Wetland

Table 3 represents the results of measurements taken during the operational phase of the laboratory-scale hybrid wetland model with two stages of vegetation growth. With that, VFHCW showed significantly higher plant growth compared to HFHCW. It was discovered that the plant’s roots extended all the way down into the substrates.

Table 3.

Vegetation plant growth measured in two-stage hybrid-constructed wetland during the operational period

Month Week Canna indica height (in cm) Calibanus hookeries height (in cm)
VFHCW HFHCW VFHCW HFHCW
Februry 2021 1–2 10–18 8–15 4–12 2–6
3–4 18–35 15–26 12–22 6–14
March 2021 1–2 35–56 26–45 22–32 14–22
3–4 56–83 45–68 32–48 22–40
April 2021 1–2 83–98 68–89 48–70 40–65
3–4 98–115 89–102 70–88 65–82
May 2021 1–2 115–132 102–125 88–104 82–98
3–4 132–158 125–149 104–112 98–107
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Conclusions

The wetland treatment process is generally complicated to comprehend due to the complex physical, chemical, and biological processes involved, as well as variations in real-time wastewater. The major conclusions reached during the study of treatment technology is up-and-coming, and the treated parameters not only pH, BOD3 at 27 °C, COD, and TSS but also removal of TP, NH3-N, and NO3-N for nitrification and de nitrification. The removal rates after the second-stage HFHCW of BOD3 at 27 °C, COD, TSS, TP, NH3-N, and NO3-N reached 92.75%, 89.90%, 85.45%, 88.83%, 99.09%, and 96.05%, respectively. When compared to the VFHCW, the HFHCW had a higher mass removal efficiency. The interaction of vegetation, integrated gravel, sand strata, and substrate influences the entire treatment process. Also, Canna Indica and Calibanus Hookeries, two locally available plants used in the lab scale of two-stage wetland model, demonstrated rapid growth and survival in the treatment wetland bed. BOD, COD, phosphates, and NH3-N removal efficiency were promising and stable during the treatment process, so it can be used on a small scale and low population areas. Constructed wetland process is simplified geographical design and vegetation classification studies should be conducted to provide appropriate guidance for upcoming CWs. Therefore, a hybrid-constructed wetland can be seen as a greener option for the traditional tertiary treatment of domestic wastewater, allowing for its reuse. The low-priced constructed wetland technology can aid in the relief of the current wastewater management problems in developing countries, provided the minimal maintenance requirements, the ease of operation, and the decent removal performance of contaminants.

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (DOCX 39 KB) (38.7KB, docx)

Abbreviations

HCW

Hybrid-constructed wetland

VFHCW

Vertical flow hybrid-constructed wetland

HFHCW

Horizontal flow hybrid-constructed wetland

HLR

Hydraulic loading rate

OLR

Organic loading rate

BOD3

Biochemical oxygen demand

COD

Chemical oxygen demand

TSS

Total suspended solid

TP

Total phosphate

NH3-N

Ammonia nitrogen

NO3—N

Nitrate nitrogen

PCTS

Polycarbonate compact transparent sheet

VF

Vertical flow

HF

Horizontal flow

Author Contribution

Krishna Kumar Singh contributed to the study setup installation, methodology, data collection, data analysis, and original manuscript preparation. Rakesh Chandra Vaishya Supervision setup installation and manuscript preparation, resource provided.

Data Availability

All data generated and analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

Declarations

Ethical Approval

Not applicable.

Conflict of Interest

The author declare no competing interests.

Footnotes

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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Supplementary Materials

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Data Availability Statement

All data generated and analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

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