Abstract
Background
Starting from the idea that unexplored areas may yield new and different ethnobotanical information, we performed a survey of traditional uses of plants in two neighboring districts situated in east Serbia (Bor and Aleksinac), both lacking in previous ethnobotanical reports, but characterized by an interesting history and culture, together with some specific features. In this study, we hypothesized that such small and specific areas could be of high ethnobotanical importance.
Methods
Semi-structured interviews were used with 155 informants. Relative cultural importance (RCI) indices, such as the frequency of citation (FC), relative frequency of citation (RFC), relative importance index (RI), informant consensus factor (ICF-FIC), use value (UV), fidelity level (FL) and Jaccard index (JI), were calculated, and principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) was performed.
Results
In this study, 2333 use-reports and 114 plants were recorded. Of the 101 medical herbs, 33 are included in the European Pharmacopoeia Edition 8.0. The most frequently used mode of preparation was as an infusion (50.0%), while leaf (44.7%) was the most used plant part. The highest FC and RFC values were recorded for Hypericum perforatum L. (13.1 and 0.2, respectively), while the highest RI was documented for Urtica dioica L. (1.0). ICF and FL indices showed important differences among selected groups of informants. The PCoA showed three homogeneous plant groups. Plants were mostly used for the treatment of digestive (49.1%), circulatory (41.2%) and respiratory system disorders (35.1%). Thirty-seven (32.5%) herbs were used for human nutrition, 14 (12.3%) in veterinary medicine, 17 (14.9%) in rituals and ethnoculture, while 24 (21.0%) for miscellaneous purposes. The highest degree of similarity was determined with studies conducted in close proximity. Four species are new to Balkan ethnobotany. New uses for some well-known plants are highlighted.
Conclusion
The study indicated that small and specific areas in the Balkans may be an important reservoir of ethnobotanical knowledge.
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13002-022-00566-0.
Keywords: Serbia, Medicinal plants, Food plants, Ritual uses, Veterinary uses, Cosmetic and craft uses
Background
Medicinal plants have an important significant role in the everyday life of rural people, particularly in developing countries. It is estimated that nearly 70 000 plant species are used for medicinal purposes today [1]. Wild plants are an important source of starting material for the synthesis of conventional drugs. About 80% of 122 plant-derived drugs are linked with their original traditional uses [2]. It was noted that 11% of the 252 essential drugs (listed by the World Health Organization—WHO) are exclusively of angiosperm origin [3]. Moreover, it is well established that most natural-based remedies exhibit fewer side effects compared to synthetic drugs. Collecting knowledge about plant species and their various uses is of great importance for the preservation of cultural heritage and the conservation of plant diversity [4].
The Balkan Peninsula is a biogeographic region with an exceptional floristic richness [5]. It is known that the ca. 8000 vascular plant species recorded for the Balkans include 2600 to 2700 endemics [6]. Serbia is located in the north-central region of the Balkan Peninsula and, according to recent data, has a flora of 4246 taxa [7] of which 1000 to 1500 species are used as foodstuffs, spices, food preservatives, medicinal plants, natural dyes or additives [8]. About 700 medicinal plant species are listed in Serbia [9]. People in Serbia have been relying on plants for various purposes since ancient times, as documented in old medieval Serbian therapy handbooks, known as the Hodosh Codex and the Chilandar Medical Codex [10, 11]. In many Balkan countries, people still practice herbal traditional medicine, where the purpose and way of use depend on cultural, historical and ethnic influences. However, depopulation, aging, migration, economic devastation and abandonment of villages and underdeveloped regions in Serbia and the entire Balkan region have resulted in a dramatic loss of ethnobotanical knowledge, in addition to a loss of plant genetic resource diversity [8]. In recent years, ethnobotanical investigations in Serbia were intensified [12–20]. Among the most recent studies, the differences in the traditional use of plants between rural and urban populations of different nationalities in the central Balkan region were reported [21], highlighting the value of traditional knowledge and of old practices which are still performed. Due to multiethnicity and complex historical background, Serbia represents a reservoir of cultural, linguistic, religious and other diversities. We consider that there are still many unexplored areas or regions with hitherto unrecorded ethnobotanical information, useful species, and new medicinal uses for known herbs.
Starting from the idea that unexplored areas may yield new and different ethnobotanical information, we performed a survey of traditional uses of plants in two neighboring districts situated in east Serbia (Bor and Aleksinac), both lacking in previous ethnobotanical reports, but characterized by an interesting history and culture, together with some specific features (rural, abandoned, economically devastated and with high migration rate). In this study, we hypothesized that such small and specific areas could be of high ethnobotanical importance and we set the following goals: (1) to collect data on the traditional uses of wild plants for medicine, human and domestic animal nutrition, veterinary medicine, folk and religious rituals, ethnoculture and other purposes; (2) to use relevant ethnobotanical indices and appropriate statistical methods to evaluate the obtained data; (3) to compare ethnobotanical knowledge between people of the two districts, between usage of plants by men and women, as well between inhabitants of cities and villages; (4) to compare our results with other ethnobotanical studies of neighboring regions conducted in Serbia and Balkans; (5) to report on new species records and new use-records not previously reported for Serbia and the Balkans; and (6) to suggest possible ways in which valuable traditional botanical knowledge can be preserved as an important part of general cultural heritage.
Methods
Research area
The research was carried out in Aleksinac and Bor districts in Eastern Serbia. Aleksinac is located in the Aleksinac basin (Serbian: Aleksinačka kotlina), in the lower stream of the South Morava river [22]. The area is known for former coal mining and high resources of oil shale estimated at about two billion tons in total reserves [23]. However, the mine was closed after an accident occurred in 1989 [24], after which no mining was performed anymore. Aleksinac is very near to Sokobanja, known among the biggest medicinal plants collecting centers in Serbia. Bor district is located in Timok Krajina in the eastern Serbia [25]. Initially, Bor was a village, but over time, in the mid-twentieth century, it developed into an urban area. This area is known for its copper and gold deposits [26]. The opening of the mine in 1903 caused the development of Bor as an industrial center in east Serbia in the mid of the last century [25]. During a time, mining started to bring more losses than benefits and the area was gradually depopulated and marginalized. Quite recently, mines were bought by a Chinese strategic partner (Zijin Mining). Although both areas suffered certain environmental and biodiversity damages, it is supposed that local inhabitants still rely on traditional herbal remedies and folk medicine. According to data acquired by the census in 2011, both districts exhibit a strong depopulation trend. The number of inhabitants in the Aleksinac district is around 16.700 and they are quite exclusively of Serbian nationality (91.7%). In Bor district, there are nearly 34.200 residents of Serbian ethnic majority (72.9%). The so-called Vlachs (“Vlah” in Serbian) of Romanian origin represent the second biggest ethnic group (13.8%), whereas Roma, Macedonian and Romanian minorities are fairly less represented [27, 28]. It is thought that Vlachs still tightly adhere to their cultural customs, speaking both Vlach (Daco-Romanian varieties) and Serbian language. The Vlach minority was recognized as the ethnic group from the earliest censuses in Serbia—since 1959, and it is strictly linked to the eastern Serbia in difference to Romanian minority settled mostly in the north of the country [29]. Religion and rituals resemble Serbian traditional customs. They also celebrate family saints (“slava”) which are in accordance with Serbian Orthodox Church tradition [30]. The number of interviewed respondents corresponded with the total number of district inhabitants.
Ethnobotanical survey
Two towns and nine surrounding villages of both regions were included in the study. In the Aleksinac district, the city Aleksinac and the surrounding villages Jakovlje, Kamenica, Loznac and Ljupten were surveyed. In the Bor district, the city Bor and the surrounding villages Brestovac, Bučje, Krivelj, Oštrelj and Slatina were investigated. The research was conducted during May–July 2019. Groups of local inhabitants in both municipalities (155 in total; 55 informants from Aleksinac and 100 informants from Bor region) were interviewed using semi-structured questionnaires. The proportion of respondents from the two districts clearly corresponded with the total number of their inhabitants. The youngest and the oldest respondents were at age of 23 and 86, respectively. In total, 113 were women and 42 were men. Respondents were chosen with no special selection criteria. Middle-aged and older participants (which made up the majority of respondents) had a high level of experience in the use and application of wild plants and therefore were more willing to take part in our research. The local recipes for the preparation of herbal remedies were additionally recorded.
There is a difference between these two areas in the ethnicity of informants reflecting the general ethnic structure of surveyed regions. Population heterogeneity was more pronounced in Bor city and surrounding villages; 77 informants were Serbs, 19 were Vlachs, 2 were Macedonians, 2 were Bulgarians and 1 informant was Montenegrin. On the other hand, there is ethical uniformity in Aleksinac city and the surrounding area: out of the total of 55 interviewed inhabitants, 54 were Serbs and 1 was Montenegrin. Thanks to interviews, the data about the local names of plants, methods of collecting and primary processing of plant material, as well as plant parts in use and way of preparation of the herbal remedies, were recorded. The information on the traditional use of herbal drugs in folk and veterinary medicine, human and animal nutrition, traditional customs and folk beliefs, and uses of plants for other purposes was recorded. The plants were authenticated by Prof. Pedja Janaćković (the corresponding author of the current study), following the professional literature [31–35]. Local names were harmonized upon Simonović [36]. Each plant mentioned by the respondent was compared with a fresh specimen or with illustrations and photographs from referent literature sources to avoid errors related to the existence of different local names and misleading plant descriptions. The nomenclature of the species was compiled from contemporary checklists, monographs and databases, such as EURO + MED (Plantbase, http://ww2.bgbm.org/EuroPlusMed). Voucher specimens were deposited in the Herbarium of the University of Belgrade—Faculty of Biology, Institute of Botany and Botanical Garden “Jevremovac” (BEOU) (Table 1). Standard herbarium acronym follows Thiers B., 2019 + : Index herbariorum (http://sweetgum.nybg.org/science/ih/) [37].
Table 1.
Recorded plant species in Aleksinac and Bor districts of eastern Serbia, their scientific names, affiliation to family, voucher numbers and vernacular names
| Scientific name | Family | Voucher No. A: Aleksinac; B: Bor |
Serbian folk name | Vlach folk name | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aleksinac | Bor | Aleksinac/Bor | Bor | |||
| Achillea clypeolata Sm. | Asteraceae | B: (BEOU 17513) | Žuti ravan, žuta hajdučka trava | |||
| Achillea millefolium L. | Asteraceae |
B: (BEOU 17514) A: (BEOU 17597) |
Jalova mesečina | Beli ravan, stolisnik, sporiš, romanika, bela hajdučka trava | Hajdučka trava, hajdučica | |
| Aesculus hippocastanum L. | Sapindaceae | B: (BEOU 17516) | Divlji kesten | |||
| Agrimonia eupatoria L. | Rosaceae |
B: (BEOU 17515) A: (BEOU 17598) |
Vratika, čičke | Ranjenik, kostolom | Petrovac | |
| Alcea biennis Winterl | Malvaceae |
A: (BEOU 17599) B: (BEOU 17518) |
Slez | |||
| Alchemilla vulgaris L. | Rosaceae | B: (BEOU 17517) | Virak | |||
| Allium ursinum L. | Amaryllidaceae | A: (BEOU 17600) | Sremuš, skrembuš, cremuš | |||
| Althaea officinalis L. | Malvaceae | A: (BEOU 17601) | Beli slez | |||
| Anthyllis vulneraria L. | Fabaceae | B: (BEOU 17519) | Detelina kamenjarka | |||
| Arctium lappa L. | Asteraceae | B: (BEOU 17520) | Čičak, čkalj | |||
| Arctium minus (Hill) Bernh. | Asteraceae | A: (BEOU 17602) | Repuš | |||
| Arum maculatum L. | Araceae | B: (BEOU 17521) | Kozlac | |||
| Asarum europaeum L. | Aristolochiaceae |
B: (BEOU 17522) A: (BEOU 17603) |
Kopitnjak | Popilnik | ||
| Asparagus officinalis L. | Asparagaceae | B: (BEOU 17523) | Asparagus | |||
| Asplenium viride Huds. | Aspleniaceae | A: (BEOU 17604) | Strašnik | |||
| Betula pendula Roth | Betulaceae |
B: (BEOU 17524) A: (BEOU 17605) |
Breza | |||
| Calendula officinalis L. | Asteraceae |
B: (BEOU 17525) A: (BEOU 17606) |
Neven | Ogršćanje | ||
| Centaurium erythraea Rafn | Gentianaceae |
B: (BEOU 17526) A: (BEOU 17607) |
Kičica | |||
| Chelidonium majus L. | Papaveraceae |
B: (BEOU 17527) A: (BEOU 17608) |
Lišajevica, lišavica | Rosopas, lišajevka, rusa | ||
| Cichorium intybus L. | Asteraceae |
B: (BEOU 17528) A: (BEOU 17612) |
Golotrba | Cikorija, vodopija, gologuza | ||
| Clematis vitalba L. | Ranunculaceae | A: (BEOU 17609) | Loza, pautina | |||
| Cornus mas L. | Cornaceae |
A: (BEOU 17610) B: (BEOU 17529) |
Drenjine | Dren | Koarnje | |
| Corylus colurna L. | Betulaceae | B: (BEOU 17530) | Leska, lešnik | |||
| Cotinus coggygria Scop. | Anacardiaceae | B: (BEOU 17531) | Ruj, rujevina | Skumpina | ||
| Crataegus monogyna Jacq. | Rosaceae | A: (BEOU 17611) | Crveni glog, glog | |||
| Cydonia oblonga Mill. | Rosaceae | A: (BEOU 17613) | Dunja | |||
| Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. | Poaceae | A: (BEOU 17614) | ||||
| Datura stramonium L. | Solanaceae | A: (BEOU 17615) | Tatula | |||
| Dipsacus laciniatus L. | Caprifoliaceae | B: (BEOU 17532) | Češljuga | |||
| Epilobium parviflorum Schreb. | Onagraceae | B: (BEOU 17533) | Mala mlečika | |||
| Equisetum arvense L. | Equisetaceae |
B: (BEOU 17534) A: (BEOU 17618) |
Ženski rastrg, štukavac | Preslica, poljski rastavić, konjski rep | Rastavić | |
| Equisetum telmateia Ehrh. | Equisetaceae | A: (BEOU 17619) | Rastreg | |||
| Eupatorium cannabinum L. | Asteraceae | B: (BEOU 17535) | Resnik, konopljuša, ustuk | |||
| Euphrasia officinalis L. | Scrophulariaceae | B: (BEOU 17536) | Vidac, vidova trava | |||
| Filipendula hexapetala Gilib. | Rosaceae | B: (BEOU 17,537) | Suručica | |||
| Fragaria vesca L. | Rosaceae |
B: (BEOU 17538) A: (BEOU 17621) |
Divlja jagoda | |||
| Galium aparine L. | Rubiaceae | A: (BEOU 17622) | Privaćuša | |||
| Galium odoratum (L.) Scop. | Rubiaceae | B: (BEOU 17539) | Lazarkinja | |||
| Galium verum L. | Rubiaceae | B: (BEOU 17540) | Ivanjsko cveće, ivančica | Smzijana | ||
| Geranium macrorrhizum L. | Geraniaceae | B: (BEOU 17541) | Zdravac | |||
| Geranium robertianum L. | Geraniaceae | B: (BEOU 17542) | Smrdljivi zdravac, živa trava, crveni zdravac, devojačka trava, divlji zdravac | |||
| Hedera helix L. | Araliaceae |
B: (BEOU 17543) A: (BEOU 17623) |
Bršljan | |||
| Helianthus tuberosus L. | Asteraceae | A: (BEOU 17624) | Svinjski krompir | |||
| Helleborus odorus Waldst. & Kit. ex Willd. | Ranunculaceae | B: (BEOU 17544) | Kukurek | |||
| Hieracium pilosella L. | Asteraceae | B: (BEOU 17545) | Zečja loboda, lišajivica | |||
| Humulus lupulus L. | Cannabaceae | B: (BEOU 17546) | Hmelj,divlji hmelj | |||
| Hypericum perforatum L. | Hypericaceae |
B: (BEOU 17547) A: (BEOU 17626) |
Kantarion | |||
| Juglans regia L. | Juglandaceae | A: (BEOU 17627) | Orah | |||
| Kickxia elatine (L.) Dumort. | Plantaginaceae | A: (BEOU 17628) | Posečotina | |||
| Laserpitium latifolium L. | Apiaceae | B: (BEOU 17548) | Raskovnik | |||
| Linaria vulgaris Mill. | Plantaginaceae | B: (BEOU 17549) | Lanilist, žuta zevalica, bogorodičin lan, lančić | |||
| Loranthus europaeus Jacq. | Loranthaceae | A: (BEOU 17629) | Imela | |||
| Lotus corniculatus L. | Fabaceae | B: (BEOU 17550) | Zvezdan | |||
| Lysimachia nummularia L. | Primulaceae | B: (BEOU 17551) | Metilj trava | |||
| Lythrum salicaria L. | Lythraceae |
B: (BEOU 17552) A: (BEOU 17630) |
Potočnjak | |||
| Malus sylvestris (L.) Mill. | Rosaceae |
B: (BEOU 17553) A: (BEOU 17631) |
Divlja jabuka | Korikove | ||
| Malva sylvestris L. | Malvaceae | A: (BEOU 17632) | Crni slez | |||
| Melilotus albus Medik. | Fabaceae | B: (BEOU 17554) | Beli kokotac | |||
| Melilotus officinalis (L.) Pall. | Fabaceae | B: (BEOU 17555) | Žuti kokotac | |||
| Melissa officinalis L. | Lamiaceae |
B: (BEOU 17556) A: (BEOU 17633) |
Matočina | Matičnjak | ||
| Mentha longifolia (L.) L. | Lamiaceae |
B: (BEOU 17557) A: (BEOU 17634) |
Divlja nana | Konjski bosiljak | ||
| Ononis spinosa L. | Fabaceae | A: (BEOU 17635) | Grmotrn, zečji trn | |||
| Origanum vulgare L. | Lamiaceae |
B: (BEOU 17558) A: (BEOU 17636) |
Divlji origano, vranilovka | Vranilova trava | ||
| Paliurus spina-christi Mill. | Rhamnaceae | A: (BEOU 17637) | Čalije | |||
| Petasites albus (L.) Gaertn. | Asteraceae | A: (BEOU 17638) | ||||
| Petasites hybridus (L.) “G. Gaertn., B. Mey. & Scherb”. | Asteraceae | B: (BEOU 17559) | Repuh, veliki podbel | Ropanj | ||
| Peucedanum longifolium Waldst. & Kit. | Apiaceae | B: (BEOU 17560) | Devesel | |||
| Physalis alkekengi L. | Solanaceae | A: (BEOU 17639) | Peruanska jabuka, petlidžančići | |||
| Pinus nigra J. F. Arnold | Pinaceae |
B: (BEOU 17561) A: (BEOU 17640) |
Crni bor | |||
| Plantago lanceolata L. | Plantaginaceae |
B: (BEOU 17562) A: (BEOU 17641) |
Dugačak žilovnik | Muška bokvica | ||
| Plantago major L. | Plantaginaceae |
B: (BEOU 17563) A: (BEOU 17642) |
Žilovnik | Širokolisna bokvica, tegavac | Ženska bokvica, bokvica, žilovlak | |
| Polygonum aviculare L. | Polygonaceae |
B: (BEOU 17565) A: (BEOU 17644) |
Troska, troskavac | Svinjska trava | Troskot | |
| Potentilla reptans L. | Rosaceae | A: (BEOU 17643) | ||||
| Prunella vulgaris L. | Lamiaceae | A: (BEOU 17645) | Izdatljivka | |||
| Prunus spinosa L. | Rosaceae |
B: (BEOU 17566) A: (BEOU 17646) |
Crni trn | Trnjina | ||
| Pulmonaria officinalis L. | Boraginaceae |
B: (BEOU 17564) A: (BEOU 17647) |
Plućnik | Plućnjak | ||
| Pyrus pyraster (L.) Burgsd. | Rosaceae | B: (BEOU 17567) | Divlja kruška | |||
| Quercus cerris L. | Fagaceae | B: (BEOU 17568) | Hrast | |||
| Robinia pseudoacacia L. | Fabaceae | B: (BEOU 17569) | Bagrem | Floran | ||
| Rosa canina L. | Rosaceae |
B: (BEOU 17570) A: (BEOU 17648) |
Šipkinje | Divlja ruža, šipurak | Šipak | Skobikur |
| Rubus plicatus Weihe & Nees | Rosaceae | B: (BEOU 17571) | Kupina, divlja kupina | Mura | ||
| Rubus ulmifolius Schott | Rosaceae | A: (BEOU 17649) | Zla kupina, divlja kupina | |||
| Rubus caesius L. | Rosaceae | A: (BEOU 17650) | Divlja kupina | |||
| Rumex acetosa L. | Polygonaceae | B: (BEOU 17572) | Kiseljak | |||
| Rumex crispus L. | Polygonaceae | A: (BEOU 17651) | Štavelj, divlje zelje | |||
| Rumex patientia L. | Polygonaceae | B: (BEOU 17573) | Štavelj, divlje zelje | Zelje, livadsko zelje | Dragaviju | |
| Salix alba L. | Salicaceae | B: (BEOU 17574) | Vrba, bela vrba | |||
| Salix purpurea L. | Salicaceae | A: (BEOU 17652) | Vrba, crvena vrba | |||
| Sambucus ebulus L. | Adoxaceae | A: (BEOU 17653) | Burjan | |||
| Sambucus nigra L. | Adoxaceae |
B: (BEOU 17575) A: (BEOU 17654) |
Bazovka | Zova | ||
| Satureja subspicata Bartl. ex Vis. | Lamiaceae | B: (BEOU 17576) | Rtanjski čaj | |||
| Sempervivum tectorum L. | Crassulaceae | B: (BEOU 17577) | Čuvarkuća | |||
| Sorbus aucuparia L. | Rosaceae | B: (BEOU 17578) | Oskoruša | |||
| Stachys officinalis (L.) Trevis | Lamiaceae | B: (BEOU 17579) | Ranilist | |||
| Symphytum officinale L. | Boraginaceae |
B: (BEOU 17580) A: (BEOU 17655) |
Crni koren | Crni gavez, gavez | ||
| Tanacetum vulgare L. | Asteraceae | B: (BEOU 17581) | Vratić, vrtika, povratić | |||
| Taraxacum sect. Ruderalia | Asteraceae |
B: (BEOU 17582) A: (BEOU 17660) |
Maslačak | |||
| Teucrium chamaedrys L. | Lamiaceae |
B: (BEOU 17583) A: (BEOU 17656) |
Podubica | |||
| Teucrium montanum L. | Lamiaceae | B: (BEOU 17584) | Trava iva | |||
| Thymus serpyllum L. | Lamiaceae | B: (BEOU 17585) | Majčina dušica, majkina dušica | |||
| Tilia platyphyllos Scop. | Malvaceae |
B: (BEOU 17586) A: (BEOU 17658) |
Lipa | Ćij | ||
| Tussilago farfara L. | Asteraceae |
B: (BEOU 17587) A: (BEOU 17659) |
Podbel | Mali podbel | ||
| Trifolium pratense L. | Fabaceae | B: (BEOU 17588) | Crvena detelina | |||
| Trifolium repens L. | Fabaceae | B: (BEOU 17589) | Bela detelina | |||
| Urtica dioica L. | Urticaceae |
B: (BEOU 17590) A: (BEOU 17661) |
Kopriva | Urdzk | ||
| Vaccinium vitis-idaea L. | Ericaceae | B: (BEOU 17591) | Brusnica | |||
| Valeriana officinalis L. | Caprifoliaceae | B: (BEOU 17592) | Valerijana, odoljen, macina trava | |||
| Verbascum thapsus L. | Scrophulariaceae | A: (BEOU 17662) | ||||
| Verbena officinalis L. | Verbenaceae |
B: (BEOU 17593) A: (BEOU 17663) |
Verbena, vrbena | |||
| Veronica officinalis L. | Plantaginaceae | B: (BEOU 17594) | Razgon, veronika, čestoslavica | |||
| Vicia cracca L. | Fabaceae | B: (BEOU 17595) | Grahorica | |||
| Viola odorata L. | Violaceae | A: (BEOU 17664) | Divlja ljubičica | |||
| Xanthium spinosum L. | Asteraceae | A: (BEOU 17665) | Bela boca | |||
| Xeranthemum cylindraceum Sm. | Asteraceae | A: (BEOU 17596) | Divlja metla, metla | |||
No explicit rules or regulations pertain to the practice of ethnobotanical research in Serbia. The purpose, methodology and nature of the research were explained before starting the interviews and oral informed consent was obtained from all informants. Each participant in the study agreed to participate voluntarily. Participants were allowed to discontinue the interviews at any time. Upon completion of the study, all data are deposited in the phonothèque of the Department of Morphology and Systematics of Plants, University of Belgrade—Faculty of Biology. Thus, the ethnobotanical research and related activities, including collecting of plants, compiling databases, images, audio recordings, gathering information on the uses of traditional knowledge or other elements of biocultural heritage found in the study area, were undertaken in compliance with the International Society of Ethnobiology (ISE) code of ethics [38]. No harmful consequences (biological or cultural) for the local people and local communities arose from this research and its related activities. During the research, all principles of the code of ethics were adhered to including intellectual property rights and support for the development of local people’s cultures. All recommended standards for conducting and reporting ethnobotanical studies were considered in accordance with Weckerle and colleagues (2018) [39].
Data analysis
Frequency of citation (FC) and relative frequency of citation (RFC).
The FC was calculated as follows:
FC = (Number of times a particular species was mentioned)/(total number of times that all species were mentioned) × 100.
The RFC index [40] was evaluated by dividing the number of informants who mentioned the use of the species (FC) by the total number of informants participating in the survey (N). The RFC index ranges from “0” when nobody refers to a plant as useful to “1” when all informants refer to a plant as useful. RFC = FC/N.
Relative importance index (RI)
According to Tardío and Pardo-De-Santayana (2008) [40], this index was calculated with the following equation:
where RFCs(max) is the relative frequency of citation over the maximum, i.e., it is obtained by dividing FCs by the maximum value in all species of the survey {RFCs(max) = FCs/max(FC)}, and RNUs(max) is the relative number of use-categories over the maximum, obtained by dividing the number of uses of the species by the maximum value in all species of the survey {RNUs(max) = NUs/max(NU)}. The RI index theoretically varies from 0, when nobody mentioned any use of the plant, to 1, when the plant was most frequently mentioned as useful in the maximum number of use-categories.
Informant consensus factor (ICF-FIC)
To test the homogeneity of knowledge, the informant consensus factor was used [41], as follows:
where nur refers to the number of use-reports for a particular use category and nt refers to the number of taxa used for a particular use category by all informants. ICF values are low (near 0) if plants are chosen randomly or if there is no exchange of information about their use among informants, and approach one (1) when there is a well-defined selection criterion in the community and/or if the information is exchanged between informants [42].
Use value (UV)
Using the results obtained in the general interview, the use value (UV) of the plant species was calculated following [43–45] methods with some modification, using the following formula:
where UV = use value of a species, U = number of quotations per species, and n = number of informants.
The use values are aggregated per plant part usage (counted as one in a certain category (a medicinal use, human nutrition, domestic animal nutrition, veterinary medicine, beliefs and contemplation and other purposes) regardless of different effects or uses. In other words, we did not aggregate statements for specific plant species per category, due to the nature of raw data from our study. We modified the earlier methodology in this way: if the same person cited the same plant but a different plant part or type of preparation in a certain category we mentioned that as a separate statement, because in this way a better insight into the importance of the use value of plants is gained.
The use value for each species can be calculated as the ratio of the number of citations to the total number of respondents.
where “U” refers to the number of uses mentioned by the informants for a given species and “n” refers to the total number of informants interviewed.
If a plant secures a high UV score that indicates there are many use-reports for that plant, while a low score indicates fewer use-reports cited by the informants.
Fidelity level (FL)
The percentage of informants claiming the use of a plant species for the same major purpose was estimated using the Fidelity level index as determined by the following formula:
where lp denotes the number of informants who indicate the use of a species for the same major ailment and lu refers to the total number of informants who mentioned the same plant for any other use [46]. High FLs are obtained for plants which are used in the same way according to the majority of informants. Only species with the lp greater than or equal to 5 and FL greater than or equal to 0.2 were considered.
Principal coordinate analysis (PCoA)
The principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) was used to test the relationships between objects (plants) and their uses, i.e. health-related disorder or medical.
To conduct PCoA, the dataset was systematized using the presence–absence matrix (1 and 0) with objects (plant taxa) in rows and categorical variable (health disorder/condition) in columns. As a result, the matrix 99 × 15 (number of species x number of illness) was obtained. This matrix is used to compute the similarity matrix based on Sokal and Sneath association coefficient (2) [47]:
where dij is the similarity between species i and j, a is the number of variables where xi = presence and xj = presence, b is the number of variables where xi = absence and xj = presence, c is the number of variables where xi = presence and xj = absence and d is the number of variables where xi = absence and xj = absence (Table 2).
Table 2.
Frequency of four possible combinations for two binary variables
| x = presence | y = absence | Sum | |
|---|---|---|---|
| x = presence | A | B | a + b |
| y = absence | C | D | c + d |
| Sum | a + c | b + d | a + b + c + d |
The similarity is 1 if two species share all 15 descriptors and similarity is 0 if two species do not share any descriptor. Based on the similarity matrix, PCoA is conducted.
All the above-mentioned analyses were performed using XLSTAT 2014 software (Addinsoft, NY, USA).
Jaccard index (JI)
This index is used to compare the present study data with the data of other ethnobotanical studies conducted in neighboring and other regions in Serbia. The formula used to evaluate the JI index [48] is as follows:
where “a” is the recorded number of species of the study area “A,” “b” is the documented number of species of the area “B” and “c” is the common number of species in both area “A” and “B.” In the case of local communities, “a” is the number of species reported by a local community “A,” “b” is the number of species cited by the local community “B” and c is the number of species reported by both “A” and “B.”
Results and discussion
Demography of informants
A total of 155 informants were interviewed. Out of these, 42 (27.1%) were male and 113 (72.9%) were female. The informants were categorized into five different age groups, as documented in Table 3.
Table 3.
Demographic characteristics of informants
| Factor | Categories | Aleksinac | Bor | Total no. of persons | Percentage (%) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| City | Villages | City | Villages | ||||
| Sex | Male | 1 | 20 | 7 | 14 | 42 | 27.1 |
| Female | 9 | 25 | 43 | 36 | 113 | 72.9 | |
| Age | ≤ 30 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 1.9 |
| 31–40 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 2.6 | |
| 41–50 | 0 | 5 | 6 | 6 | 17 | 10.9 | |
| 51–60 | 2 | 7 | 8 | 18 | 35 | 22.6 | |
| > 60 | 7 | 30 | 34 | 25 | 96 | 61.9 | |
| Nationality | Serbs | 9 | 45 | 45 | 32 | 131 | 84.5 |
| Vlach | – | – | 2 | 17 | 19 | 12.3 | |
| Bulgarians | – | – | 1 | – | 1 | 0.6 | |
| Montenegrins | 1 | – | 1 | – | 2 | 1.3 | |
| Macedonians | – | – | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1.3 | |
Mode of preparation
The most frequently used mode of preparation was as an infusion (50.0%) followed by processed (12.9%), fresh (direct utilization) (10.1%), tincture (4.7%), balm (4.4%) and so on (Tables 4, 5 and 6 and Additional file 1: Table 1), which was also reported by ethnobotanical studies performed in the closest neighborhood regions [13, 15, 18]. The most used plant part (Additional file 1: Table 2) was the leaf (44.7%).
Table 4.
Medical uses of plant species of the Aleksinac and Bor districts of eastern Serbia
| Scientific name | Part of the plant | Type of preparation | Medicinal purposes | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aleksinac | Bor | Aleksinac/Bor | Aleksinac | Bor | Aleksinac/Bor | Aleksinac | Bor | Aleksinac/Bor | |
| Achillea clypeolata | Flowers | Infusion | Maintaining general health condition, heart disorders, pulmonal diseases, stomach ailments, respiratory tract problems | ||||||
| Achillea millefolium♦ | Whole plant# | Balm | Skin diseases | ||||||
| Ointment | Skin diseases | ||||||||
| Aerial parts | Balm | Excessive bleeding, wounds and burns healing | |||||||
| Tincture | Varicose veins, circulation improvement | ||||||||
| Infusion | Against inflammation and stomach disorders, calming effect | Headache, rheumatism, liver, pancreas and gallbladder ailments, respiratory system disorders, antibiotic | |||||||
| Tincture | Wound healing, massaging sore spots, reducing swelling after insect's sting | Rheumatism, liver, pancreas, gallbladder ailments, respiratory system disorders, antibiotic | |||||||
| Flowering apical parts | Infusion | Against enuresis nocturna, bladder and gynecological disorders | |||||||
| Flowers and leaves# | Infusion | Immune system strengthening, detoxification, against myoma and stomach diseases, improves appetite | |||||||
| Leaves# | Balm | Skin care, hemorrhage, wound healing | |||||||
| Juice from leaves | Wound healing | ||||||||
| Tincture | Stomach disorders | ||||||||
| Powder | Hemorrhage, healing bleeding wounds | ||||||||
| Tincture | Varicose veins and circulation improvement | ||||||||
| Flowers# | Tincture | Varicose veins and circulation improvement | |||||||
| Infusion | Wound rinse, bladder ailments, ovary diseases, antipyretic, reduction in excessive urination, anti-inflammatory activity, general health condition improvement | Throat and wound rinse, stomach ulcer, skin disorders, immune system strengthening, nausea, headache, migraine, asthma, reducing blood sugar levels, blood detoxification and strengthening, detoxification, nervous system diseases, blood pressure regulation, inhibition of blood clot formation, vaginal flushing, various rashes, liver, intestine and gallbladder disorders, healing bleeding wounds, cough, medical panacea, rash, purulent wounds | Gastric and respiratory disorders, bronchitis, menstrual cycle regulation | ||||||
| Tincture | Wound healing | ||||||||
| Aesculus hippocastanum | Flowers | Infusion | Against neuralgia, rheumatism, improving circulation | ||||||
| Oil extract | Rheumatism | ||||||||
| Fruits | Tincture | Varicose veins, improving circulation | |||||||
| Tincture | Varicose veins, rheumatism | ||||||||
| Fruits with capsule | Balm | Veins disorders | |||||||
| Agrimonia eupatoria♦ | Aerial parts | Infusion | Lowering blood pressure, against headache, throat inflammation and oral cavity wounds treatment by rinsing, urinary system, liver, gallbladder and stomach disorders, kidney stones | ||||||
| Flowers and leaves# | Infusion | Urinary tract infections | Detoxification | Kidney disorders | |||||
| Leaves# | Infusion | Liver, spleen and heart ailments, against headache and sore throat, kidney and bladder disorders | Urinary system ailments | ||||||
| Alcea biennis * | Leaves | Infusion | Intestinal diseases, inhalation against sinusitis | ||||||
| Alchemilla vulgaris♦ | Leaves# | Infusion | Gynecological ailments, against vaginal discharge | ||||||
| Flowers and leaves# | Infusion | Gynecological ailments | |||||||
| Allium ursinum | Leaves | Tincture | Blood pressure regulation and reduction in elevated blood pressure | ||||||
| Althaea officinalis♦ | Aerial parts# | Infusion | Bronchitis, dry cough | ||||||
| Roots | Maceration | Bronchitis, dry cough | Expectoration, throat inflammation, cough, respiratory tract disorders | ||||||
| Infusion | Against airways obstruction, against cough, expectoration, pulmonary diseases | ||||||||
| Anthyllis vulneraria | Aerial parts | Infusion | Blood cleansing | ||||||
| Leaves | Fresh, revetment | Wound healing | |||||||
| Arctium lappa | Leaves | Fresh, revetment | Painful spots, rheumatism, joint inflammation | ||||||
| Infusion | Against cough, diarrhea | ||||||||
| Roots | Infusion | Elimination of heavy metals from organism, cancer cell inhibition, detoxification, reducing blood sugar levels | |||||||
| Tincture | Rheumatism | ||||||||
| Arctium minus | Leaves | Fresh, revetment | Heated on a stove or coated with vegetable oil for painful joints | ||||||
| Arum maculatum | Rhizome | Fresh, mixed with honey | Intestine ailments, digestion improvement, against hemorrhoids | ||||||
| Asarum europaeum | Leaves | Fresh, revetment | Purulent wounds | ||||||
| Infusion | Kidney ailments | ||||||||
| Asparagus officinalis | Roots | Infusion | Urinary tract ailments, kidney stones | ||||||
| Asplenium viride * | Leaves | Infusion | To cure fright | ||||||
| Betula pendula♦ | Flowers# | Infusion | Male flowers are used for urinary tract and prostate ailments | Male flowers are used for detoxification, eliminating salt excess from blood vessels | |||||
| Buds# | Infusion | Kidney diseases, eliminating kidney sand and limescale | |||||||
| Leaves | Infusion | Urinary tract infections | Kidney diseases, eliminating kidney sand, limescale and stones, urinary ducts inflammation, kidney cleansing | Urinary tract diseases | |||||
| Calendula officinalis♦ | Aerial parts# | Infusion | Intestinal mucosa and intestine inflammation, calming effects, liver and gallbladder inflammations, mucosa and intestine inflammation | ||||||
| Tincture | Intestinal mucosa and intestine inflammation | ||||||||
| Flowers | Infusion | Against cold, detoxification, blood strengthening, blood vessels flexibility maintenance, bladder disorders | Blood cleansing, against ovary and breast cysts, cancer, kidneys diseases, circulation improvement | ||||||
| Tincture | Tumor prevention | ||||||||
| Balm | Wounds and burns healing, skin problems, eczema, hand care, knee pain, injures | ||||||||
| Ointment | Hemorrhoids, wounds and burns healing, inflammations | ||||||||
| Tincture | Varicose veins, circulation improvement | ||||||||
| Leaves# | Fresh, revetment | Purulent wounds, stings | |||||||
| Centaurium erythraea♦ | Aerial parts | Infusion | Calming effect, positive effect on stomach | Liver, pancreas and stomach diseases, blood vessels function regulation, pulmonary ailments, reducing blood sugar levels, appetite improvement, gallbladder ailments, blood cleansing, diabetes, heartburn, irregular menstrual cycle | |||||
| Tincture | Diabetes, liver ailments | ||||||||
| Flowers and leaves# | Infusion | Gastric function regulation | |||||||
| Flowers# | Infusion | Stomach diseases, diabetes, reducing blood sugar levels, blood vessels cleansing, fever | |||||||
| Chelidonium majus♦ | Aerial parts | Maceration | Wounds rinse | ||||||
| Apical parts | Maceration | Benign tumor treatment | |||||||
| Flowers and leaves# | Tincture | Cells regeneration | |||||||
| Leaves# | Fresh | Ovaries and uterus cysts | |||||||
| Fresh, revetment | Eyesight improvement | ||||||||
| Tincture | Against cancer | ||||||||
| Bath | Painful legs, circulation improvement | ||||||||
| Infusion | Strengthening immune system after tumors | Against cancer and metastasis, myoma, jaundice, gastric, liver, gallbladder treatment, ulcers, stomach disorders, psoriasis, gynecological problems, intestine function improvement, skin redness | |||||||
| Latex# | Fresh | Corn removal | Keratosis, face, cleansing, aging, hyperpigmentation, cataract | Against warts, skin ailments | |||||
| Cichorium intybus | Whole plant | Decoction | Against diarrhea and dysentery | ||||||
| Aerial parts | Infusion | Against diarrhea, reducing blood sugar levels, jaundice, cirrhosis, weight regulation, liver cleansing, stomach, liver, gallbladder ailments | |||||||
| Peduncle | Infusion | Against diarrhea | |||||||
| Flowers | Infusion | Against diarrhea, stomach diseases | |||||||
| Flowers and roots | Infusion | Against diarrhea | |||||||
| Roots | Infusion | For better digestion, weight loss, against diarrhea | |||||||
| Decoction | Kidneys ailments, kidney sand, against diarrhea | ||||||||
| Cornus mas | Fruits | Infusion | Heart disorders, digestive system disorders, blood strengthening, blood pressure regulation, complete blood count improvement, cold, diarrhea | ||||||
| Tincture | Positive effect on whole organism | Nausea, gastric ailments, diarrhea | |||||||
| Juice proveriti | Regulation of free toxic radicals in organism | ||||||||
| Corylus colurna | Leaves | Fresh | Against swelling after snakebite | ||||||
| Cotinus coggygria | Twigs | Infusion | Burns, wounds on the feet and hands, increased concentration of sugar in the blood, gynecological problems, cells regeneration, prevention of metastases, hemorrhoids, kidney ailments, high blood pressure | ||||||
| Tincture | Against cancer | ||||||||
| Bark | Infusion | Reducing gastric acid, mouthwash, cleansing the body of toxins, treatment of cancer, wound rinsing, against cancer, eczema rinse and intestine ailments | |||||||
| Leaves | Infusion | Reducing gastric acid, mouthwash, cleansing the body of toxins, treatment of cancer | |||||||
| Crataegus monogyna♦ | Fruits | Decoction | Blood pressure lowering | ||||||
| Flowers | Infusion | Heart disorders, cardiovascular diseases treatment | |||||||
| Leaves | Infusion | Heart disorders | |||||||
| Bark# | Decoction | Heart disorders | |||||||
| Cydonia oblonga | Leaves | Decoction | Against diarrhea | ||||||
| Cynodon dactylon | Whole plant | Infusion | Against hemorrhoids | ||||||
| Aerial parts | Infusion | Varicose veins treatment | |||||||
| Roots | Infusion | Expectoration, kidney sand, urinary infections, intestine cleansing | |||||||
| Datura stramonium♦ | Leaves | Fresh | Wounds | ||||||
| Epilobium parviflorum | Aerial parts | Infusion | Problems with the bladder, enlarged prostate, reducing pain in the bladder, as a diuretic, kidney diseases | ||||||
| Flowers | Infusion | Bladder inflammation, enlarged prostate | |||||||
| Equisetum arvense♦ | Non-fertile aerial parts | Infusion | Urinary ducts ailments and inflammation, joints diseases, maintaining mineral balance, osteoporosis, urinary tract problems, diarrhea, detoxification, pulmonary and kidney cleansing, regulating uric acid level in blood, bladder sand and disorders, stopping nose bleeding, sclerosis, cancer prevention | Kidney diseases | |||||
| Tincture | Massaging tired legs and arms | ||||||||
| Fertile aerial parts# | Infusion | Urinary tract inflammation, urinary tract cleansing, kidney ailments, kidney sand elimination, bladder ailments, reduction in frequent urination, genital inflammation in women | |||||||
| Equisetum telmateia | Apical parts | Decoction | Decoction prepared together with corn silk and young ears of corn is used against kidney and urinary tract ailments | ||||||
| Eupatorium cannabinum | Whole plant | Infusion | Metabolism regulation, hormone stabilization | ||||||
| Tincture | Osteoporosis | ||||||||
| Aerial parts | Infusion | Cholesterol level regulation | |||||||
| Flowers | Infusion | Kidney problems, metabolism regulation | |||||||
| Euphrasia officinalis | Whole plant | Infusion | Eye treatment | ||||||
| Aerial parts | Infusion | Treatment of eye diseases, cataracts | |||||||
| Filipendula hexapetala | Flowers | Infusion | Blood vessels strengthening, stimulation, preventing cardiac arrest, stomach disorders treatment, heart disorders hypertension, treatment of kidney inflammation, as a diuretic | ||||||
| Leaves | Infusion | Liver and kidney disorders | |||||||
| Roots | Infusion | Respiratory tract disorders | |||||||
| Fragaria vesca | Flowers and leaves | Infusion | Immune system strengthening | ||||||
| Leaves | Fresh | Stomach ailments | |||||||
| Infusion | Heart disorders, general health condition improvement | Stomach problems, liver cleansing, against diarrhea, against cough, menstrual problems | |||||||
| Galium odoratum | Flowers | Infusion | Respiratory tract inflammation, diuretic, blood cleansing, against migraine | ||||||
| Galium verum | Aerial parts | Infusion | Against cancer, kidney problems, thyroid disorders, stomach diseases, headache, liver inflammation, respiratory tract disorders, hormonal stabilizer, regulation of female and thyroid hormones | ||||||
| Balm | Skin diseases | ||||||||
| Flowers | Infusion | Bronchitis, pulmonary diseases | |||||||
| Balm | Skin cancer | ||||||||
| Geranium robertianum | Aerial parts | Infusion | Mouth and throat inflammation | ||||||
| Tincture | Varicose veins, circulation improvement | ||||||||
| Leaves | Infusion | Hormone regulation | |||||||
| Tincture | Hormone regulation | ||||||||
| Hedera helix♦ | Twigs# | Infusion | Hemorrhoids | ||||||
| Fruits# | Tincture | Rheumatism | |||||||
| Leaves | Infusion | Bronchitis, sore throat, against cough | Respiratory ailments, bladder inflammation, kidney and bladder stones and sand, hemorrhoids | ||||||
| Tincture | Respiratory ailments, rheumatism | ||||||||
| Oil extract | Eczema | ||||||||
| Helianthus tuberosus | Tuber | Fresh, revetment | Mumps | ||||||
| Hieracium pilosella | Whole plant | Infusion | Bladder inflammation, treatment of urinary disorders | ||||||
| Humulus lupulus♦ | Fruits# | Infusion | Mental diseases, calming effect, insomnia | ||||||
| Hypericum perforatum♦ | Aerial parts | Infusion | Improve general health condition, stomach ailments | Calming effects, respiratory system disorders, depression | Stomach problems | ||||
| Tincture | Depression, stomach ailments | ||||||||
| Balm | Wound healing, burns, scratches, cuts | ||||||||
| Oil extract | Wound healing | ||||||||
| Flowering apical parts | Infusion | Stomach disorders, gastric ailments, gallbladder stones, antibacterial activity, gastric and intestine ulcer | |||||||
| Oil extract | Wounds, cuts, burns, gastric ulcer | ||||||||
| Flowers# | Infusion | Gastritis, gastric disorders, cough, general health condition improvement, hemorrhoids, private areas rinse | Heartburn, gallbladder ailments, mouthwash, strengthening immunity, calming effect, pulmonary diseases, depression, gallbladder stones, detoxification, gynecological ailments, kidney sand, medical panacea, digestive system disorders, general health condition improvement, throat rinsing against bed wetting, infections, bladder inflammation and diseases, cold | Gastric ulcer, stomach pain, urinary tract infections, throat inflammation | |||||
| Tincture | Wounds, calming effect in stressful situations | ||||||||
| Oil extract | Wounds, burns, skin diseases, problematic moles, improve general health condition, bruises, cuts, against vaginal discharge, inflammation, gynecological ailments, surgery incision healing, scars, hemorrhoids, muscle spasm | ||||||||
| Balm | Burns, decubitus wounds, cuts, face eczema, scratches, injuries, bee and wasp stings, wounds healing | ||||||||
| Flowers and leaves# | Oil extract | Wounds | |||||||
| Balm | Burns, wounds | ||||||||
| Juglans regia | Fruits | Tincture | Unriped fruits are used for regulation of thyroid gland, source of iodine, against gastric inflammation | ||||||
| Leaves | Infusion | Function regulation of thyroid gland | |||||||
| Bath | Treatment of barren, pain release, bone diseases | ||||||||
| Kickxia elatine * | Whole plant | Infusion | Against enuresis nocturna in children | ||||||
| Aerial parts | Fresh, revetment | Skin cuts and wounds treatment | |||||||
| Linaria vulgaris | Aerial parts | Tincture | Varicose veins, circulation improvement | ||||||
| Flowers | Infusion | Detoxification, liver and spleen ailments, elimination of excess water from organism | |||||||
| Tincture | Varicose veins, circulation improvement | ||||||||
| Loranthus europaeus | Leaves | Infusion | Blood pressure regulation, circulation improvement | ||||||
| Lythrum salicaria♦ | Flowering aerial parts | Infusion | Against diarrhea in children | ||||||
| Apical parts | Fresh, revetment | Against itch, skin redness | |||||||
| Malus sylvestris | Fruits | Vinegar | Reducing cholesterol levels in blood | Varicose veins, fever, pain in legs | |||||
| Malva sylvestris♦ | Flowers and leaves | Infusion | Against cough | ||||||
| Melilotus albus | Aerial parts | Tincture | Varicose veins, circulation improvement | ||||||
| Melilotus officinalis♦ | Aerial parts | Infusion | As diuretic, against migraine, respiratory tract disorders, regulation digestion, liver and gallbladder disorders | ||||||
| Tincture | Varicose veins, circulation improvement | ||||||||
| Melissa officinalis♦ | Aerial parts# | Infusion | Against cold, calming effect | Stomach disorders, painful and irregular menstruation, sleep improvement, positive effect on nervous system | |||||
| Apical parts# | Infusion | Calming effect | |||||||
| Flowers# | Infusion | Heart function regulation | |||||||
| Flowers and leaves# | Infusion | Immune system strengthening | |||||||
| Juice from leaves# | Dried and irritated skin | ||||||||
| Leaves | Infusion | Against insomnia, relaxing effect, nausea, sleep improvement, mental illness, nervousness, tiredness, heart ailments, pulmonary ailments | Calming effect, stomach disorders | ||||||
| Mentha longifolia | Aerial parts | Infusion | Stomach ailments | ||||||
| Tincture | Stomach ailments | ||||||||
| Flowering apical parts | Infusion | Stomach disorders | |||||||
| Leaves | Infusion | Against insomnia, nausea, stomach ailments, calming effect, pharynx inflammation, sinusitis | |||||||
| Ononis spinosa♦ | Roots | Infusion | Heart disorders | ||||||
| Decoction | Eliminating kidney sand and gallbladder stones | ||||||||
| Origanum vulgare♦ | Aerial parts | Infusion | Calming effect, improve appetite | Against cough, cold, relaxing effects, detoxification, against bacteria Escherichia coli in urine, urinary ducts infections, triglycerides levels regulation, antifungal effect against Candida, regulation fat, chest pain | Urinary tract inflammation | ||||
| Flowering apical parts | Calming effect | ||||||||
| Flowers | Infusion | Against cold, cough, throat inflammation, stomach problems, calming effect | |||||||
| Flowers and leaves | Infusion | Relaxing effect, detoxification, disease prevention, gastric problems | |||||||
| Leaves | Infusion | Lowering gastric acid levels | |||||||
| Paliurus spina-christi | Fruits | Infusion | Against diarrhea | ||||||
| Petasites albus* | Whole plant | Decoction | Urinary tract inflammation | ||||||
| Petasites hybridus | Leaves | Fresh, revetment | Painful spots, back and knee pain, joint dislocation, sprains | ||||||
| Roots | Tincture | Varicose veins, circulation improvement | |||||||
| Physalis alkekengi | Fruits | Fresh | Ear pain | ||||||
| Maceration | Ear pain | ||||||||
| Pinus nigra | Shoots | Syrup | Made from young shoots is used for pulmonal diseases | ||||||
| Pollen | Mixed with honey | Pneumonia, bronchitis, particularly in children, expectoration | |||||||
| Leaves | Infusion | Respiratory tract disorders, bronchitis | |||||||
| Bath | Detoxification, painful legs, circulation improvement | ||||||||
| Plantago lanceolata♦ | Whole plant# | Infusion | Throat and tonsils inflammation | ||||||
| Leaves | Fresh | Cuts, wounds, pus removal | |||||||
| Infusion | Gastric ulcer, general health condition improvement | Gastritis, pulmonal diseases, urinary tract disorders, prostate problems | |||||||
| Mixed with honey | Pulmonal diseases | Expectoration | |||||||
| Plantago major | Juice from leaves | Fresh, revetment | Injuries, reducing swelling after bee sting, wounds | ||||||
| Leaves | Fresh | Heartburn, gastritis | |||||||
| Fresh, revetment | Ingrown hairs, skin ulcers | Burns, callus on heel, injuries, swollen feet, painful spots, clavus, sting mosquitoes, rheumatism, hemorrhage, animal bites, cuts, skin inflammation | Purulent wounds, wound healing, inflammation after sting | ||||||
| Infusion | Stomach pain, against frequent urination, general health condition improvement | Nausea, stomach ailments, cough, pulmonary diseases, kidney and bladder ailments, sore throat, against bacteria Escherichia coli, expectoration, gastric mucosa regeneration, digestion improvement, asthma, bronchitis | Gastric ulcer | ||||||
| Fresh mixed with honey | Stomach problems, pulmonary diseases, expectoration, vocal cords ailments | ||||||||
| Balm | Decubitus wounds | ||||||||
| Polygonum aviculare♦ | Whole plant# | Infusion | Heart disorders, kidney disorders, kidney and gallbladder stones | ||||||
| Aerial parts | Infusion | Bladder disorders, treatment of polycystic ovaries, improving brain circulation | As diuretic, rheumatism, kidney cysts, pulmonary disorders, stomach pain | ||||||
| Potentilla reptans | Leaves | Infusion | Against diarrhea | ||||||
| Prunella vulgaris♦ | Aerial parts# | Infusion | Stomach diseases | ||||||
| Flowering apical parts# | Infusion | Eyewash | |||||||
| Prunus spinosa | Fruits | Fresh | Stomach problems | ||||||
| Infusion | Asthma, anemia, against diarrhea, stomach diseases, complete blood count improvement | ||||||||
| Wine | Anemia | ||||||||
| Tincture | Strengthening immunity | ||||||||
| Pulmonaria officinalis | Aerial parts | Infusion | Pulmonary diseases, pneumonia, bronchitis | ||||||
| Flowers | Infusion | Pulmonary diseases | |||||||
| Flowers and leaves | Infusion | Pulmonary diseases | |||||||
| Leaves | Infusion | Pulmonary diseases, against cold, flu | Bronchitis | ||||||
| Pyrus pyraster | Leaves | Infusion | Against bacteria Escherichia coli in urine, urinary ducts infections | ||||||
| Quercus cerris | Bark | Infusion | Strengthening immunity, respiratory tract problems, urinary ducts, stomach ailments | ||||||
| Robinia pseudoacacia | Flowers | Infusion | Expectoration, cold, pulmonary diseases | ||||||
| Balm | Rheumatism | ||||||||
| Rosa canina♦ | Fruits | Infusion | Medical panacea, against cold, immune system strengthening, kidney problems (elimination of sand and stone), calming effect, diarrhea, against virus, vitamin deficiency, fever, relaxing effects | Throat ailments, flu, cough | |||||
| Maceration | Source of vitamin C | ||||||||
| Decoction | Immune system strengthening, cold, blood pressure lowering, fever | ||||||||
| Tincture | Immune system strengthening, oral cavity rinse and disinfection | ||||||||
| Rubus plicatus | Fruits | Wine | Anemia, immune system strengthening | ||||||
| Leaves | Fresh, revetment | Wound cleansing and healing, rheumatic pain | |||||||
| Fresh | Stomach disorders | ||||||||
| Infusion | Against cough, blood cleansing, immune system strengthening, respiratory tract disorders, stomach ailments, urinary tract problems, appendicitis | ||||||||
| Rubus ulmifolius | Flowers and leaves | Infusion | Immune system strengthening | ||||||
| Leaves | Fresh, revetment | Purulent wounds | |||||||
| Infusion | Heart and blood strengthening, cold, cough, throat and tonsils ailments | ||||||||
| Rubus caesius | Leaves | Infusion | Menstrual cycle regulation | ||||||
| Rumex acetosa | Leaves | Fresh | Stomach problems | ||||||
| Rumex crispus | Seeds | Infusion | Against diarrhea in children and adults | ||||||
| Rumex patientia | Seeds | Infusion | Against diarrhea in children and adults | ||||||
| Salix alba | Bark | Infusion | Lowering elevated body temperature, liver, spleen and gallbladder ailments, diuretic, against headache, bladder diseases | ||||||
| Salix purpurea♦ | Bark | Infusion | It is drunk after accidents, for bruises and wound healing | ||||||
| Decoction | Fever | ||||||||
| Sambucus ebulus | Roots | Decoction | As revetment, for gallbladder stone | ||||||
| Sambucus nigra♦ | Twigs# | Balm | Burns treatment | Wounds, scratches, wrinkles, acne, facial care, spider bite, allergies, hemorrhoids | |||||
| Fruits#s | Fresh | Detoxification, complete blood count improvement | |||||||
| Wine | Pulmonary diseases, immune system strengthening | ||||||||
| Flowers | Infusion | Asthma, flu, calming effect, throat ailments and inflammation, detoxification, respiratory tract problems, sweating improvement, expectoration, sneezing, pneumonia, stomach problems, strengthening immunity, blood pressure problems, relaxing effect | Against cough, cold, pulmonary problems, bronchitis, fever | ||||||
| Syrup | Against cough, immune system strengthening | ||||||||
| Flowers and leaves# | Infusion | Bronchitis, stomach diseases | |||||||
| Satureja subspicata | Flowers and leaves | Infusion | Stomach problems, bronchitis | ||||||
| Aerial parts | Infusion | Against cold, gastric ailments, strengthening immunity, pulmonary diseases, against cough, stomach discomfort | |||||||
| Sempervivum tectorum ▲ | Leaves | Fresh | Against headache▲, lowering blood sugar, heartburn, stomach problems, lowering triglyceride levels cancer prevention | ||||||
| Fresh, revetment | Wounds, injuries, burns, | ||||||||
| Fresh, mixed with honey | Liver problems, detoxification, against cysts (breast cysts) and tumors | ||||||||
| Juice from leaves | Fresh | Ear pain, injuries, skin wounds, fat in the ears | |||||||
| Stachys officinalis | Aerial parts | Infusion | Respiratory tract problems, detoxification, asthma, bronchitis, flatulence | ||||||
| Aerial parts and flowers | Infusion | Stomach diseases, | |||||||
| Flowers | Balm | Decubitus wounds | |||||||
| Flowers and leaves | Infusion | Regeneration of all cells in body, against cysts, stomach diseases, cleansing intestine | |||||||
| Leaves | Fresh, revetment | Wounds healing | |||||||
| Infusion | Stomach ailments, immune system strengthening, pulmonary diseases, against cancer, tumors, cysts on kidneys | ||||||||
| Symphytum officinale | Leaves | Fresh, revetment | Wounds, inflammation, gout, sprains, fracture, joint ailments | ||||||
| Balm | Sprains, joint ailments | ||||||||
| Ointment | Treatment of closed wounds | Varicose veins | |||||||
| Roots | Infusion | Rheumatism, heel callus removal, general health condition improvement, bones pain | |||||||
| Tincture | Joints inflammation, against leg pain, treatment of closed wounds, varicose veins | Rheumatism, osteoporosis, heel callus removal, all types of hematomas, meniscus injury, capillary problems, treatment of digestive system (intestine, stomach problems) | |||||||
| Ointment | Gout, against pain, varicose veins | ||||||||
| Balm | Rheumatism, ligament injury, cartilage restoration, arthrosis, bone pain, muscle braking, joint dislocation, sprains | ||||||||
| Fresh, revetment | Painful spots | ||||||||
| Tincture | Varicose veins, regulation of circulation | ||||||||
| Tanacetum vulgare | Flowering apical parts of plant | Infusion | Improving appetite, stomach strengthening, kidney stones and sand elimination, diuretic | ||||||
| Leaves | Fresh, revetment | Placed on eyes and forehead for reducing headache | |||||||
| Taraxacum sect. Ruderalia ♦▲ | Flowers# | Infusion | Detoxification, liver, gastric, pulmonary ailments, face washing▲, jaundice▲ | ||||||
| Tincture | Liver cleansing | ||||||||
| Peduncle# | Fresh | Diabetes | |||||||
| Leaves# | Infusion | Menstrual cycle regulation, diuretic | |||||||
| Tincture | Wound rinse, endometrial polyps, positive effect on vocal cords▲ | ||||||||
| Fresh | Detoxification, heartburn, gastric cancer | ||||||||
| Roots | Infusion | Blood strengthening, against breast cancer, stomach and liver diseases, throat ailments, problems with urinary ducts, appetite improvement, blood cleansing, menstrual cycle regulation, diuretic, detoxification, gynecological ailments, inflammations, immune system strengthening, against malignancies | |||||||
| Tincture | Liver cleansing and ailments, against malignancy | ||||||||
| Powder | Liver ailments | ||||||||
| Teucrium chamaedrys▲ | Aerial parts | Infusion | Stomach, pancreas, liver and spleen disorders, respiratory diseases, improving digestion, cataract treatment▲, eye ailments▲, against nausea, reducing blood sugar levels, weight loss, stomach acid reduction, gastric ulcer, | Gastric disorders | |||||
| Flowers | Infusion | Heartburn, gastric disorders, against cough, improving appetite | |||||||
| Flowers and leaves | Infusion | Gastric, liver and gallbladder disorders, improving digestion, blood pressure regulation, reducing blood sugar levels, against asthma | |||||||
| Teucrium montanum | Whole plant | Infusion | Medical panacea | ||||||
| Aerial parts | Infusion | Detoxification, immune system strengthening, headache, stomach ailments, improving appetite, digestive and respiratory system disorders | |||||||
| Tincture | Improving appetite | ||||||||
| Flowers and leaves | Infusion | For better appetite, against cold | |||||||
| Tincture | For better appetite, against cold | ||||||||
| Thymus serpyllum♦ | Whole plant# | Infusion | Calming effect, digestion regulation, stomach ailments, medical panacea | ||||||
| Aerial parts | Infusion | Calming effect, headache, pneumonia, bronchitis, relaxing effect, pulmonary problems, cough, stomach ailments, respiratory tract disorders, vertigo, migraine, physical weakness, vaginal secret elimination, disinfection, asthma | |||||||
| Tincture | Massaging head against headache | ||||||||
| Syrup | Immune system strengthening, cough | ||||||||
| Flowers# | Infusion | Calming effect, blood vessels cleansing, digestion regulation, gastric and pulmonal disorders, throat inflammation, cough, bronchitis, detoxification | |||||||
| Oil extract | Relaxing effect | ||||||||
| Flowers and leaves# | Infusion | Calming effect, against cold and cough | |||||||
| Tilia platyphyllos♦ | Flowers | Infusion | Improve general health condition, relaxing effect | Throat inflammation, sneezing, respiratory diseases, against bacteria and viruses, immune system strengthening, medical panacea, pulmonary ailments, sedative, circulation improvement, | Against cold, cough, flu, fever, sweating improvement for fever reduction, calming effect, insomnia | ||||
| Leaves# | Infusion | Improving sweating | |||||||
| Tussilago farfara | Flowers | Infusion | Against cough | ||||||
| Flowers and leaves | Infusion | Pulmonary problems | |||||||
| Leaves | Fresh, revetment | Nail treatment, painful spots | |||||||
| Infusion | Bronchitis | Respiratory problems, asthma, cough, pulmonal ailments, digestion regulation, | |||||||
| Syrup | Against cough, immune system strengthening | ||||||||
| Trifolium pratense | Aerial parts | Infusion | Hormonal stabilizer, thyroid gland hormones regulation, female hormones regulation | ||||||
| Flowers | Infusion | Against cancer, gynecological problems, hormonal stabilizer, regulation of female and thyroid hormones | |||||||
| Urtica dioica♦ | Whole plant# | Infusion | Blood cleansing, nervousness reducing | ||||||
| Aerial parts | Infusion | Iron deficiency | Anemia, complete blood count improvement | Immune system strengthening | |||||
| Apical parts | Infusion | Anemia, physical weakness, iron source | Immune system strengthening, iron deficiency | ||||||
| Apical parts and leaves | Infusion | Anemia, strengthening immunity | |||||||
| Seeds# | Mixed with honey | Anemia | Strengthening immunity, hemoglobin increasing, medical panacea | ||||||
| Leaves | Fresh, revetment | Pain relief | |||||||
| Powder | Wounds | ||||||||
| Infusion | Iron deficiency | Strengthening immunity, circulation improvement, mood improvement, calming effects, pain in chest, blood strengthening, stomach problems, skin diseases, detoxification, complete blood count improvement, diuretic, urinary ducts ailments, kidney diseases | Anemia | ||||||
| Roots# | Infusion | Prostate ailments, strengthening immunity, blood cleansing, female reproductive system cancer | Anemia | ||||||
| Bath | Circulation improvement | ||||||||
| Tincture | Anemia | ||||||||
| Vaccinium vitis-idaea | Fruits | Mixed with honey | Immune system strengthening | ||||||
| Leaves | Infusion | Urinary tract and kidney ailments, against bacteria and Escherichia coli, regulation of uric acid in blood, kidney and urinary ducts inflammation, urinary ducts cleansing | |||||||
| Valeriana officinalis♦ | Roots | Cold maceration | Calming effects, depression, tachycardia, headache, treatment of neuroses | ||||||
| Tincture | Against insomnia, calming effects | ||||||||
| Verbascum thapsus♦ | Whole plant# | Decoction | Against skin warts | ||||||
| Verbena officinalis♦ | Aerial parts | Infusion | Headache, as antibiotic, hormonal imbalance, kidney cleansing, bronchitis, liver treatment, bladder limescale elimination | ||||||
| Veronica officinalis▲ | Aerial parts | Infusion | Immune system strengthening, blood vessels cleansing▲, sleep improvement, calming effects | ||||||
| Viola odorata | Flowers and leaves | Infusion | Heart disorders | ||||||
| Xanthium spinosum* | Aerial parts | Decoction | Against diarrhea | ||||||
| Xeranthemum cylindraceum* | Aerial parts | Soaked with warm water and applied as a revetment on the back against fever | |||||||
* First time mentioned usage in Serbia; ♦ Plants are included in European Pharmacopoeia 8.0; # Plant parts are different from those cited in European Pharmacopoeia 8.0; ▲ New usage of well known traditional plants
Table 5.
Human and domestic animal nutrition and veterinary medicine use of plant species of the Aleksinac and Bor districts
| Scientific name | Part of the plant | Type of preparation | Human nutrition | Veterinary purposes | Animal nutritionSS | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aleksinac | Bor | Aleksinac/Bor | Aleksinac | Bor | Aleksinac/Bor | Aleksinac | Bor | Aleksinac/Bor | Aleksinac | Bor | Aleksinac | Bor | Aleksinac/Bor | |
| Achillea millefolium | Leaves | Fresh | As spice | |||||||||||
| Agrimonia eupatoria | Whole plant | Fresh | Against udder inflammation in cows (mastitis) | |||||||||||
| Aerial parts | Fresh | Against udder inflammation in cows (mastitis) | ||||||||||||
| Fruits | Fresh | Against udder inflammation in cows | ||||||||||||
| Allium ursinum | Leaves | Fresh | As salad | |||||||||||
| Dry | As spice | |||||||||||||
| Asarum europaeum | Leaves | Spice for cooked beans | ||||||||||||
| Calendula officinalis | Flowers | Fresh | As salad | |||||||||||
| Cichorium intybus | Whole plant | Decoction | Against diarrhea in pigs | |||||||||||
| Roots | Decoction | Against diarrhea in domestic animals | ||||||||||||
| Cornus mas | Fruits | Fresh | As fruit | |||||||||||
| Processed | Juice, jam, Serbian delicacy “slatko,” marmalade, for cookies | Pekmez | ||||||||||||
| Tincture | Liqueur | |||||||||||||
| Corylus colurna | Fruits | Fresh | As food | |||||||||||
| Crataegus monogyna | Fruits | Fresh | Used in diet | |||||||||||
| Cydonia oblonga | Fruits | Processed | Serbian delicacy "slatko” | |||||||||||
| Leaves | Decoction | Against diarrhea in domestic animals | ||||||||||||
| Cynodon dactylon | Aerial parts | Fresh | Food for domestic animals | |||||||||||
| Equisetum arvense | Aerial parts | Infusion | Against diseases in pigs | |||||||||||
| Shoots | Infusion | Diseases in piglets | ||||||||||||
| Fragaria vesca | Fruits | Fresh | As fruit | |||||||||||
| Processed | Serbian delicacy “slatko,” juice, for ice cream, jam | |||||||||||||
| Helleborus odorus | Whole plant | Fresh, revetment | Swollen udder in sheep | |||||||||||
| Roots | Fresh | "natravuvanje" | ||||||||||||
| Dry | "natravuvanje" | |||||||||||||
| Juglans regia | Fruits | Used in diet | ||||||||||||
| Lotus corniculatus* | Aerial parts | Meadow hay, livestock nutrition, used as food for domestic animals | ||||||||||||
| Whole plant | For domestic animals as food | |||||||||||||
| Lysimachia nummularia | Leaves | Fresh | Livestock nutrition | |||||||||||
| Lythrum salicaria | Flowering aerial parts | Infusion | Against diarrhea in pigs | |||||||||||
| Malus sylvestris | Fruits | Fresh | Used in diet as fruit | |||||||||||
| Processed | Homemade vinegar | |||||||||||||
| Dry | Used in diet as dried fruit | |||||||||||||
| Melissa officinalis | Leaves | Processed | Juice | |||||||||||
| Fresh | As spice for broth | |||||||||||||
| Origanum vulgare | Aerial parts | As spice | ||||||||||||
| Physalis alkekengi | Fruits | Fresh | As fruit | |||||||||||
| Processed | Serbian delicacy “slatko” | |||||||||||||
| Plantago lanceolata | Leaves | Fresh | As salad | |||||||||||
| Plantago major | Leaves | Fresh | As salad | |||||||||||
| Fresh, revetment | Open wounds (dogs and cats) | |||||||||||||
| Polygonum aviculare | Leaves | Fresh | As food for canary | |||||||||||
| Used in animal diet | ||||||||||||||
| Prunella vulgaris | Flowering apical parts | Infusion | Cow eyes treatment by flushing | |||||||||||
| Prunus spinosa | Fruits | Fresh | Food supplement in crystallized honey | As fruit | ||||||||||
| Processed | Jam, juice, compote | |||||||||||||
| Pyrus pyraster | Fruits | Fresh | As fruit | |||||||||||
| Dry | As dried fruit | |||||||||||||
| Quercus cerris | Fruits | Dry | Flour, coffee | |||||||||||
| Robinia pseudoacacia▲ | Flowers | Fresh | Fresh flowers are nibbled | |||||||||||
| Processed | Juice, Serbian delicacy "slatko", honey, as food (breaded) ▲ | |||||||||||||
| Rosa canina | Fruits | Fresh | As fruit | |||||||||||
| Processed | Juice, wine, pekmez | Jam | ||||||||||||
| Petals | Processed | Serbian delicacy "slatko" | ||||||||||||
| Rubus plicatus* | Fruits | Fresh | As fruit | |||||||||||
| Processed | Serbian delicacy"slatko", juice, jam, for cookies, wine, marmalade | |||||||||||||
| Rubus ulmifolius | Fruits | Processed | Juice, Serbian delicacy "slatko" | |||||||||||
| Rumex acetosa | Leaves | Fresh | As salad, fresh leaves are nibbled | |||||||||||
| Processed | Broth, salt pie, cooked dish | |||||||||||||
| Rumex crispus | Whole plant | Decoction | Against diarrhea in domestic animals | |||||||||||
| Rumex patientia | Seeds | Infusion | Against diarrhea (pigs and cows) | |||||||||||
| Leaves | Processed | Salt pie, broth, fried dish | ||||||||||||
| Fresh | Used in animal diet | |||||||||||||
| Sambucus nigra | Fruits | Fresh | Used in diet | |||||||||||
| Processed | Compot | Jam | Serbian delicacy "slatko" | |||||||||||
| Flowers | Processed | Juice | ||||||||||||
| Satureja subspicata | Aerial parts | As spice | ||||||||||||
| Sempervivum tectorum | Leaves | Fresh | Fresh leaves are nibbled | |||||||||||
| Sorbus aucuparia | Fruits | Fresh | As food | |||||||||||
| Processed | Wine, marmalade, rakija | |||||||||||||
| Dry | As dried fruit | |||||||||||||
| Taraxacum sect. Ruderalia | Flowers | Processed | Serbian delicacy "slatko", breaded as food | Dandelion "honey" | ||||||||||
| Peduncle | Fresh | Used in diet | ||||||||||||
| Peduncle and leaves | Fresh | As salad | ||||||||||||
| Leaves | Fresh | As salad | ||||||||||||
| Thymus serpyllum | Whole plant | Dry | As spice | |||||||||||
| Aerial parts | Fresh | As spice for chicken and turkey meat | ||||||||||||
| Flowers | As spice | |||||||||||||
| Tilia platyphyllos | Trunk | Infusion | Against diarrhea in livestock | |||||||||||
| Flowers | Processed | Juice | ||||||||||||
| Leaves | Fresh | Fresh leaves are used for traditional Serbian food sarma | ||||||||||||
| Trifolium pratense | Flowers | Fresh | Fresh flowers are nibbled | |||||||||||
| Trifolium repens | Flowers | Fresh | Fresh flowers are nibbled | |||||||||||
| Whole plant | As food for domestic animals | |||||||||||||
| Aerial parts | Fresh | Animal diet | ||||||||||||
| Dried | Animal diet | |||||||||||||
| Urtica dioica | Aerial parts | Fresh | Food for turkeys | Food for pigs | ||||||||||
| Processed | Juice, broth, salt pie | |||||||||||||
| Apical parts | Fresh | Salad, rolled in small balls and swallowed, fresh leaves are added to homemade juices to enrich them with iron | ||||||||||||
| Processed | Fried dish, salt pie, broth, cooked dish | Juice | ||||||||||||
| Apical parts and leaves | Processed | Fried dish | ||||||||||||
| Leaves | Processed | Fried dish, cooked dish, salt pie, juice, for bread | Broth | |||||||||||
| As spice | ||||||||||||||
| Vaccinium vitis-idaea | Fruits | Fresh | Used in diet as fruit | |||||||||||
| Processed | Liqueur | |||||||||||||
| Verbascum thapsus | Whole plant | Decoction | Against warts on cows' udder | |||||||||||
| Verbena officinalis▲ | Aerial parts | Fresh | Udder inflammation in cows▲ | |||||||||||
| Vicia cracca* | Whole plant | Fresh | Used in animal diet | |||||||||||
| Aerial parts | Dry | Used as food for domestic animals, meadow hay | ||||||||||||
| Xanthium spinosum* | Aerial parts | Decoction | Against diarrhea (pigs) | |||||||||||
* First time mentioned usage in Serbia; ▲ New usage of well known traditional plants
Table 6.
Folk and religious rituals and ethnoculture, and other purposes of plant species of the Aleksinac and Bor districts
| Scientific name | Part of the plant | Type of preparation | Beliefs and contemplation | Other purposes | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aleksinac | Bor | Aleksinac/Bor | Aleksinac | Bor | Aleksinac/Bor | Aleksinac | Bor | Aleksinac | Bor | Aleksinac/Bor | |
| Achillea millefolium | Stem | Used for I Ching | |||||||||
| Flowers | Used for making garlands on the Fest day dedicate to St. John (celebrated on July 7) | ||||||||||
| Asarum europaeum | Leaves | Protection against evil forces. Leaves are used as home and children protector | |||||||||
| Roots | Maceration | Fragrant bath | |||||||||
| Asparagus officinalis | Aerial parts | Ornamental, used for making bouquets | |||||||||
| Calendula officinalis | Aerial parts | Oil extract | Tanning oil | ||||||||
| Flowers | Infusion | Skin complexion improvement | |||||||||
| Chelidonium majus | Whole plant | Decoction | Egg dyeing | ||||||||
| Cichorium intybus | Aerial parts | Guardian of travelers | |||||||||
| Roots | Powder | Substitute for coffee | |||||||||
| Clematis vitalba | Branches | Handmade beehive (“trmka") | |||||||||
| Cornus mas | Twigs | Gate decoration for St. George's Day (celebrated on May 6) | Gate decoration for Sfințișori (celebrated on March 22) | ||||||||
| Flowers | Fresh flowers are used for custom for Easter | ||||||||||
| Corylus colurna | Branches | The stick is used as protection against snakebite, gate decoration with handmade cross made with branches | |||||||||
| Fruits | Fresh fruits are talismans | ||||||||||
| Dipsacus laciniatus | Aerial parts | Home protection against evil forces | |||||||||
| Galium aparine | Whole plant | Used for custom for St. George's Day (celebrated on May 6) | |||||||||
| Galium verum | Aerial parts | Against spells, used for making garlands on the Fest day dedicate to St. John (celebrated on July 7) | |||||||||
| Geranium macrorrhizum | Whole plant | Ornamental plant | |||||||||
| Flowers | Used on the Fest day dedicate to St. George (celebrated on May 6) | ||||||||||
| Flowers and leaves | Used for making garlands on the Fest day dedicate to St. George (celebrated on May 6) | ||||||||||
| Helleborus odorus | Aerial parts | Protection against evil forces used fresh on the Fest day dedicate to St. George (celebrated on May 6) | |||||||||
| Flowers | Gate decoration for St. George's Day (celebrated on May 6) | ||||||||||
| Leaves | Gate decoration for St. George's Day (celebrated on May 6) | ||||||||||
| Humulus lupulus | Fruits | Stuffing pillows for better sleep | |||||||||
| Hypericum perforatum | Aerial parts | Used for making garlands on the Fest day dedicate to St. John (celebrated on July 7) | |||||||||
| Flowers | Infusion | Tea made of flowers is drunk against evil spirits | |||||||||
| Oil extract | As a cosmetic aid, face mask | ||||||||||
| Laserpitium latifolium* | Roots | Dry roots are used for protection from evil forces and spells (home and personality protection) | |||||||||
| Whole plant | Whole fresh plant is used as home protector against evil forces | ||||||||||
| Melilotus officinalis | Aerial parts | Protection against evil forces | |||||||||
| Melissa officinalis | Leaves | Fresh | Fresh leaves are used for bee swarming | ||||||||
| Peucedanum longifolium | Whole plant | Ornamental plant | |||||||||
| Pinus nigra J. F | Trunk | Resin source | |||||||||
| Quercus cerris | Branches | Branches with leaves is used for orthodox Christmas as ceremonial tree | |||||||||
| Trunk | Firewood | ||||||||||
| Rosa canina | Seeds | Balm | Cosmetic product for face care routine | ||||||||
| Petals | Micellar water | Cosmetic product for face care routine | |||||||||
| Salix alba | Twigs | Young twig is placed around the waist to prevent back pain for whole year at St. George's Day, twigs with leaves are used to make garlands for St. George's Day (celebrated on May 6). Fresh twigs are used for gate decoration for Lazarus Saturday | Homemade baskets from twigs without leaves | ||||||||
| Salix purpurea | Twigs | Gate decoration for St. George's Day (celebrated on May 6) | |||||||||
| Sambucus ebulus | Fruits | Fruits were recalled for ink making | |||||||||
| Sempervivum tectorum | Whole plant | Grown in the garden as home protection | |||||||||
| Tanacetum vulgare | Aerial parts | For bouquets, ornamental plant | |||||||||
| Flowers | Fresh flowers are used for making garlands on the Fest day dedicate to St. John (celebrated on July 7), decorative | ||||||||||
| Decoction | Protection against evil forces by sprinkling | ||||||||||
| Taraxacum sect. Ruderalia | Flowers | Decoction | Egg dyeing | ||||||||
| Teucrium chamaedrys | Flowers and leaves | Infusion | Hair washing | ||||||||
| Tilia platyphyllos▲ | Flowers | Decoction | Egg dyeing▲ | ||||||||
| Trifolium pratense | Leaves | Fresh leaf is used for making patterns when eggs are dyed for Orthodox Easter | |||||||||
| Urtica dioica▲ | Whole plant | Cold maceration | Vegetable plants and flowers watering | Spraying vegetables, insecticide | |||||||
| Decoction | Strengthening hair root | Egg dyeing | |||||||||
| Aerial parts | Decoction | Egg dyeing, strengthening hair root | |||||||||
| Infusion | Spraying peppers and tomatoes | ||||||||||
| Maceration | Mixed with garlic is used as a pesticide | Spraying vegetables, insecticide | |||||||||
| Leaves | Fresh, revetment | Rubbing ear before piercing▲ | |||||||||
| Decoction | Strengthening hair root | ||||||||||
| Roots | Decoction | Against hair loss, hair washing, head rinse | Strengthening hair roots | ||||||||
| Xeranthemum cylindraceum* | Aerial parts | Homemade broom | |||||||||
*First time mentioned usage in Serbia; ▲ New usage of well known traditional plants
Quantitative ethnobotanical analysis
The results of the study (Tables 4, 5 and 6) provide information on the use of 114 wild and few domesticated (but still wild growing) plant species quoted by respondents from East Serbia. Recorded plants belong to 97 genera and 47 families, of which the Asteraceae (14.0%), Rosaceae (13.2%), Lamiaceae (7.9%) and Fabaceae (7.9%) were the most represented, similarly to other ethnobotanical studies conducted in Serbia and the Balkans [12, 17, 21].
Use-reports
Out of the total of 2333 reports on the use of plants obtained by respondents, 1653 reports were given for medical purposes, 496 for human nutrition, 26 for animal nutrition, 38 for veterinary purposes, 57 for folk and religious rituals and ethnoculture and 63 for other purposes. Out of a total of 155 informants, 113 women gave 1834 use-reports, while 42 men gave 499. There were no differences between statements provided by men and women with exception for notes on the herbal micellar water and herbal medicinal syrup which were stated specifically by women. There were no differences between men and women regarding the curative and prophylactic use of plants for certain illnesses and disorders. In regard to traditional knowledge on the use of the wild plants for nutrition, religious and other traditional customs and for other purposes, both genders gave more–less similar information. Statements related to ethnoveterinary purposes are more frequently given by men than women.
Out of 2333 use-reports, 1180 (50.6%) were provided by inhabitants from the cities, while 1153 (49.4%) were provided by village inhabitants. There were no statistically significant differences between data on the traditional use of plants between inhabitants from cities and from villages concerning plant part in use and disorders treated by herbs. This is mainly due to the fact that inhabitants of these small semi-urban areas are usually tightly stuck to surrounding rural places, still performing some farming or horticulture for their own needs. However, there were some differences related to the traditional use of plants. Much more statements on animal nutrition, veterinary purposes, folk and religious rituals and ethnoculture, as well as for some less frequent uses, were obtained from inhabitants settled in the villages. Utilization of plant species for certain handicraft uses, as well as the note on common chicory (Cichorium intybus L.) as a coffee substitute, was mentioned only by respondents settled in the villages.
Frequency of citation (FC), relative frequency of citation (RFC) and relative importance index (RI)
In the present study, FC values ranged from 0.05 to 13.1 (Additional file 1: Tables 3 and 4). The highest FC values are recorded for Hypericum perforatum (13.1), followed by Urtica dioica (9.0) and Plantago major (5.1). RFC values ranged from 0.001 to 0.2 (Additional file 1: Tables 3 and 4). The highest RFC was recorded for Hypericum perforatum (0.2) and Urtica dioica (0.2) followed by Plantago major (0.1). As can be seen, the ethnomedicinal plants having high RFC values indicated their abundant use and widespread knowledge among the local communities. RI values ranged from 0.1 to 1 (Additional file 1: Tables 3 and 4). The highest RI values were calculated for Urtica dioica (1.0), followed by Hypericum perforatum (0.7) and Rosa canina (0.7).
All these plants are among the most frequently reported in several neighboring regions, i.e., studied sites from southeast and south Serbia and from Kosovo [12, 17–19, 21].
Informant consensus factor
The documented uses of plants in folk medicine refer to the treatment of 15 different groups of disorders. The ICF values ranged from 0.0 to 100.0% and 36.4% to 88.5% for Aleksinac and Bor districts, respectively. The highest ICF value found for the Aleksinac district was related to endocrine system disorders followed by skin-related disorders (79.7%) and circulatory system disorders (69.4%), while the lowest ICF value was found for antiseptic activity and metabolic disorders (0.0%). On the other hand, the highest ICF value for the Bor district was determined for skin disorders (88.5%), followed by digestive system disorders (83.5%) and respiratory system disorders (81.4%), while the lowest ICF value was 36.4% for antiseptic activity (Additional file 1: Table 5). A large number of species described by respondents of Bor district are used for the prevention and healing of digestive and respiratory system disorders. Such a fact might be related to very expressed air and soil pollution, as a consequence of mining and severe dust emission [49]. For the two studied regions considered together, the ICF values ranged from 33.3% to 88.9%. The highest ICF value was determined for skin disorders, followed by respiratory system disorders (82.1%) and digestive system disorders (82.1%), while the lowest ICF value was found for reproductive system disorders (51.4%) and antiseptic activity (33.3%) (Additional file 1: Table 6).
The ICF values ranged from 0.0% to 100.0% and 0.0% to 100.0% for men and women in the Aleksinac district, respectively. The highest ICF value found for men was related to endocrine system disorders followed by skin-related disorders (71.4%) and circulatory system disorders (50.0%), while the lowest was found for metabolic disorders, musculoskeletal system disorders, sensory system disorders, tumor ailments and urinary system disorders (0.0%). On the other hand, the highest ICF value for women was determined for endocrine system disorders and tumor ailments, followed by skin-related disorders (78.4%), while the lowest was recorded for musculoskeletal and sensory system disorders (0.0%) (Additional file 1: Table 7). When it comes to Bor district, the ICF values ranged from 0.0 to 85.7% and 30.0% to 86.9% for men and women, respectively. The highest ICF value found for men was related to sensory system disorders followed by skin (77.8%) and immune system disorders (63.0%), while the lowest was recorded for metabolic disorders (0.0%). On the other hand, the highest ICF value for women was determined for skin system disorders and digestive system disorders (82.8%) followed by immune system disorders (81.5%), while the lowest was recorded for antiseptic activity (Additional file 1: Table 8). In both districts together, the ICF values ranged from 0.0 to 100.0% and 27.3 to 88.0% for men and women, respectively. The highest ICF value found for men was related to endocrine system disorders followed by skin system disorders (79.6%) and immune system disorders (69.4%), while the lowest was recorded for metabolic disorders (0.0%). On the other hand, the highest ICF value for women was determined for skin-related disorders, followed by immune system disorders (82.8%) and respiratory system disorders (80.1%), while the lowest was recorded for antiseptic activity (27.3%) (Additional file 1: Table 9).
Regarding differences recorded in the city and surrounding villages, it was shown that the ICF values ranged from 0.0 to 100.0% in Aleksinac district. The highest ICF value found for both, citizens from the town and citizens from surrounding villages, was related to endocrine system disorders followed by skin system disorders (66.7% and 80.4%, respectively), while the lowest was recorded for musculoskeletal, reproductive, respiratory, sensory, urinary system disorders and musculoskeletal system disorders, respectively (Additional file 1: Table 10). When it comes to Bor district the ICF values ranged from 29.2 to 80.0% and 0.0 to 87.5% for citizens from the town and citizens from surrounding villages, respectively. The highest ICF value found for citizens from town was related to skin system disorders followed by digestive system disorders (74.4%), while the lowest was recorded for general health (29.2%). On the other hand, the highest ICF value for citizens from surrounding villages was determined for sensory system disorders, followed by skin (82.4%) and respiratory system disorders (77.3%), while the lowest was recorded for metabolic disorders (0.0%) (Additional file 1: Table 11). In both districts, the ICF values ranged from 28.0 to 82.5% and 0.0 to 100.0% for citizens from the town and citizens from surrounding villages, respectively. The highest ICF value found for citizens from town was related to skin system disorders followed by digestive (75.1%) and respiratory system disorders (74.8%), while the lowest was recorded for general health (28.0%). On the other hand, the highest ICF value for citizens from surrounding villages was determined for endocrine system disorders followed by skin (86.8%) and immune system disorders (79.2%), while the lowest was recorded for antiseptic activity (0.0%) (Additional file 1: Table 12).
Use value (UV)
In the present study, the UV (Additional file 1: Table 13) in Aleksinac district ranged between 0.02 and 0.8. Based on UV data, the five most commonly used ethnomedicinal plant species were Hypericum perforatum (0.8), Urtica dioica (0.6), Plantago major (0.3), Sambucus nigra (0.3) and Achillea millefolium (0.3). The UV (Additional file 1: Table 14) in Bor district ranged between 0.01 and 1.4. The five most commonly used ethnomedicinal plant species in Bor district were Urtica dioica (1.4), Hypericum perforatum (1.3), Sambucus nigra (1.1), Rosa canina (0.9) and Rubus plicatus (0.7). These species were used for diverse purposes which are indicated in Tables 4, 5 and 6.
Fidelity level
Fidelity level (FL) value in Aleksinac district ranged from 21 to 100%. The highest FL of 100% was recorded for Allium ursinum and Crataegus monogyna (circulatory system disorders), Althaea officinalis and Hedera helix (respiratory system disorders) and Betula pendula (urinary system disorders) (Additional file 1: Table 15). Further results showed that FL value in Bor district ranged from 22 to 100%. The highest FL of 100% was recorded for Alchemilla vulgaris (reproductive system disorders), Melilotus albus (circulatory system disorders) and Rumex patientia (digestive system disorders) (Additional file 1: Table 16). In addition, the results for the entire studied area showed that FL values range from 25 to 100%. The highest FL of 100% was recorded for Alchemilla vulgaris (reproductive system disorders), Crataegus monogyna and Melilotus albus (circulatory system disorders) and Rumex patientia (digestive system disorders) (Additional file 1: Table 17). FL values indicate that respondents from Aleksinac district mostly use plants for skin system disorders (five species), while respondents from Bor district mostly use plants typical for the treatment of digestive system disorders (13 species).
Based on use-records given by men and women, FL values, in Aleksinac district, ranged from 75 to 100% and 33.3 to 100.0%, respectively. The highest FL of 100% according to men uses was recorded for Juglans regia (endocrine system disorders) (Additional file 1: Table 18), while for women was recorded for Betula pendula (urinary system disorders), Crataegus monogyna (circulatory system disorders) and Hedera helix (respiratory system disorders) (Additional file 1: Table 19). On the other hand, FL values in Bor district ranged from 30.8 to 88.9% (based on man uses) and 20.0 to 100.0% (based on women uses). The highest FL according to men uses was recorded for Melissa officinalis (nervous system disorders) (Additional file 1: Table 20), while for women was recorded for Alchemilla vulgaris (reproductive system disorders), Epilobium parviflorum (urinary system disorders), Euphrasia officinalis (sensory system disorders), Melilotus albus (circulatory system disorders) and Mentha longifolia and Rumex patientia (digestive system disorders) (Additional file 1: Table 21). In addition, the results for the entire studied area showed that FL value ranged from 27.8% to 100% (man uses) and 20.0% to 100% (women uses). The highest FL based on men use-records was recorded for Juglans regia (endocrine system disorders), Pulmonaria officinalis (respiratory system disorders) and Sambucus nigra (immune system disorders) (Additional file 1: Table 22). The highest FL based on women use-records was recorded for Alchemilla vulgaris (reproductive system disorders), Betula pendula and Epilobium parviflorum (urinary system disorders), Crataegus monogyna and Melilotus albus (circulatory system disorders), Euphrasia officinalis (sensory system disorders) and Mentha longifolia and Rumex patientia (digestive system disorders) (Additional file 1: Table 23). FL values indicate that men from Aleksinac district mostly use plants for skin system disorders (two species), while men from Bor district mostly use plants typical for the treatment of digestive system disorders (five species). FL values indicate that women from Aleksinac district mostly use plants for skin system disorders (five species), while women from Bor district mostly use plants typical for the treatment of digestive system disorders (12 species).
In addition, based on use-records given by citizens from the town and citizens from surrounding villages FL values in Aleksinac district ranged from 55.6 to 100% and 42.9 to 100.0%, respectively. The highest FL (citizens from town) was recorded for Paliurus spina-christi (digestive system disorders) (Additional file 1: Table 24), while the highest FL (citizens from surrounding villages) was recorded for Althaea officinalis (respiratory system disorders), Betula pendula (urinary system disorders), Crataegus monogyna (circulatory system disorders), Hedera helix and Pinus nigra (respiratory system disorders) (Additional file 1: Table 25). On the other hand, FL values in Bor district ranged from 50.0% to 100.0% (citizens from town) and 18.2 to 100.0% (citizens from surrounding villages). The highest FL (citizens from town) was recorded for Cichorium intybus (digestive system disorders) and Sambucus nigra (respiratory system disorders) (Additional file 1: Table 26), while the highest FL (citizens from surrounding villages) was recorded for Alchemilla vulgaris (reproductive system disorders), Epilobium parviflorum (urinary system disorders), Euphrasia officinalis (sensory system disorders), Humulus lupulus (nervous system disorders), Melilotus albus (circulatory system disorders) and Mentha longifolia and Rumex patientia (digestive system disorders) (Additional file 1: Table 27). In addition, the results for the entire studied area showed that FL values ranged from 23.1% to 100% (citizens from town) and 25.0% to 100% (citizens from surrounding villages). The highest FL (citizens from town) was recorded for Alchemilla vulgaris (reproductive system disorders), Euphrasia officinalis (sensory system disorders), Melilotus albus (circulatory system disorders), Paliurus spina-christi and Rumex patientia (digestive system disorders) and Valeriana officinalis (nervous system disorders) (Additional file 1: Table 28), while the highest FL (citizens from surrounding villages) was recorded for Althaea officinalis (respiratory system disorders), Betula pendula (urinary system disorders), Crataegus monogyna (circulatory system disorders), Pinus nigra and Pulmonaria officinalis (respiratory system disorders) and Rumex patientia (digestive system disorders) (Additional file 1: Supplementary Table 29).
FL values indicate that citizens from Aleksinac town mostly use plants for skin system disorders (two species), while citizens from Bor town mostly use plants typical for the treatment of immune system disorders (three species). FL values indicate that citizens from surrounding villages in Aleksinac district mostly use plants for skin system disorders (four species) and respiratory system disorders (four species), while citizens from surrounding villages in Bor district mostly use plants typical for the treatment of digestive system disorders (14 species).
Obtained results point to the fact that although citizens from these districts rely on the official health care system, still medicinal plants have significant value in everyday life for these people.
Multivariate analysis
A scatter plot from principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) showed the formation of three distinct homogeneous groups (Fig. 1). The first group consisted of seven species (Rumex acetosa, Xanthium spinosum, Sambucus ebulus, Rumex patientia, Potentilla reptans, Paliurus spina-christi and Cydonia oblonga). All these species are grouped in relation to one variable, i.e., the effects on digestive system disorders. The second group was formed from five species (Melilotus albus, Loranthus europaeus, Allium ursinum, Crataegus monogyna and Viola odorata) acting mainly for circulatory system disorders, according to information from respondents. The third group consisted of five species (Petasites albus, Asparagus officinalis, Equisetum telmateia, Hieracium pilosella and Pyrus pyraster) which were mentioned for urinary system disorders application.
Fig. 1.
Principal coordinate analysis of plants used in traditional human medicine in surveyed area in East Serbia
Traditional preparations and remedies
Out of 114 reported species, 101 (88.6%) are used for medical purposes (Table 4). Plants are the most commonly used to treat digestive system disorders (49.1%), circulatory system disorders (41.2%) and respiratory system disorders (35.1%). These findings on a wide use of plants for digestive and respiratory system conditions are in accordance with other ethnobotanical studies in Serbia [17, 18, 21]. Concerning plants used for medicinal purposes, 33 species are included in the European Pharmacopoeia 8.0. [50] (marked with ♦ in Table 4). Plant parts, i.e., plant drugs which differ from citations provided in European Pharmacopoeia 8.0. [50], are marked with hash (#) Table 4. Some interesting traditional remedies were recorded, which haven’t been so far indicated in previous ethnopharmacological studies in the Balkans.
H. perforatum is reported as an herbal remedy effective against every disorder (medical panacea) which is in agreement with some earlier investigation. Although spatially distant, in the Arribes del Duero (Spain), the cultural importance of H. perforatum oil is unquestionable. It is also cited, literally translated, that “What Hypericum doesn’t cure the doctor certainly won’t” [51]. Many previous studies on the Balkans documented its usage against diseases of different organ systems [52–55].
It is claimed that the best herbal medicines, with the most healing properties, are made if this plant is collected on July 7 (St. John’s Day). It is even stated that flowers smell different on that day. Flowers are collected, basted with sunflower or olive oil, and left in the sunlight for 40 days. On the 40th day, oil extract is brought into the home. Similar methods for preparation are noted in earlier studies both on Serbian territory [12] and in the region [21, 56–58]. Oil extract is used externally for skin ailments, hemorrhoids and gynecological problems. Živković and colleagues (2020) reported the same type of preparation against skin complaints and hemorrhoids [19], while Varga and collaborators (2019) reported the usage of infusion against gynecological diseases [59]. Internally, it is applied for digestive ailments and improving general health conditions.
Informants are also knowledgeable on the toxicity of certain medicinal plants, as well as their side effects when combined with medicinal drugs. For example, they stated that H. perforatum tea should not be used together with drugs used in the treatment of malignant diseases because it can “completely reverse the effect of the drug.” Also, tea should not be drunk for more than seven days in a row.
When it comes to medicinal herbs, the so-called Ciklus svetojovanskog bilja (lit. Cycle of St. John’s herbs) is also mentioned. It encompasses the period from June 28 (Vidovdan; lit. St. Vitus day) to July 7 (Ivanjdan; St. John’s Day) when it is most desirable to collect certain medicinal herbs (Achillea millefolium, Melissa officinalis and Hypericum perforatum).
It is not unusual for some traditional receipts in Serbia to be prepared during the 40 days. It is possible that roots of the method of preparation lie down in the Christian religion where the number 40 has a particular meaning. Christians believe souls need 40 days after death to leave the Earth, in the Bible it is mentioned that the great flood lasted 40 days and nights [60], Moses spent 40 days and nights in Mount Sinai, the same number of days Jesus fasted and was tempted in the wilderness [61]. We assume that it is easier for people to remember and pass on the knowledge related to the preparation if there is some universally known fact.
Traditional tinctures
Homemade tinctures are usually prepared with the fruit spirit (`rakija` in Serbian). Among the most used, there are the tinctures made of a single herb, such as wild thyme, nettle or marigold, or those prepared of mixture herbs.
Tincture for a massage, circulation improvement and thrombosis prevention is made of hundreds of marigold flowers (Calendula officinalis) put in a liter of “rakija”. The usage of this herb as a tincture also was noted in the research conducted in southwestern Serbia [14]. The comfrey (Symphytum officinale) tincture is made in a similar way (one mature root is put in one liter of rakija), or the drug is mixed with five wild chestnut fruits and one rosemary branch in half a liter of spirit for healing of leg pains and varicose veins. One ethnobotanical investigation previously published, conducted in the northeastern part of Croatia, reported the traditional use of comfrey’s roots as tincture against cardiovascular disorders [62].
Syrups and honey
Few informants mentioned preparation of homemade syrup for strengthening immunity, which was especially recommended to children. The syrup is made from Pinus nigra shoots, Plantago lanceolata leaves, Sambucus nigra flowers, Thymus serpyllum aerial parts and Tussilago farfara leaves. The preparation is made by boiling of sugar (3 kg) for 10 min and thereafter adding 300 g of each plant drug to cook for an additional 9 min exactly. In the final step, 15 g of commercial citric acid is added, and the mixture is cooked for one more minute.
Nettle (Urtica dioica) syrup is considered as the best medicine for strengthening the immune system in patients with anemia. Firstly, red wine is cooked with yellow sugar. When it comes to boiling, 50 young apical parts of nettle are added, and it is cooked for 2–3 min. Every morning before breakfast, a small glass of preparation should be consumed.
To the best of our knowledge, these receipts are mentioned for the first time on the Balkan Peninsula.
The honey is often mixed with herbs for different treatments. For example, there is a recipe quoting that two tablespoons of the black pine (Pinus nigra) pollen, locally known as “flower powder” (in Serbian, “cvetni prah”) are mixed with 200–300 g of meadow honey. It is believed that this remedy improves respiratory ailments. These results are similar to those obtained from the Kopaonik mountain where buds and needles of P. sylvestris are also mixed with honey in the final part of the preparation of medicine against chronic bronchitis [12] Mustafa and colleagues (2012b, 2020) reported mixing cones of Pinus spp. with honey to treat respiratory system ailments, which is partially in agreement with the results of the current study [56, 63]. The arum is also mixed with honey: one kilogram of Arum maculatum rhizome is combined with a kilogram of honey. The mixture is consumed 2–3 times a day before a meal for digestion and hemorrhoids treatment. A particular product is made of dandelion flowers (Taraxacum officinale). It is called “dandelion honey.” Dandelion flowers are collected and cooked together with water and sugar until the flowers are completely cooked in the mixture. This product is frequently prepared and consumed in the Balkans, according to some previous ethnobotanical studies [56, 64].
Ointment for skin diseases
Ointment is prepared with a hundred of marigold petals fried with a tablespoon of homemade grease and it is used cold for the treatment of urticaria. Our results are congruent with some previous studies [16], which mentioned the similar use of these flowers against different skin injuries [12–14, 19]. Twigs of elder (Sambucus nigra) are used for preparing balm for burns therapy and insect and spider bites treatment. Twigs are grated and mixed with plant wax, honey, the incense and chopped yarrow (Achillea millefolium) leaves. The mixture is filtered and stored in a cold place.
Decoction for urinary diseases
Aerial parts of Equisetum telmateia are mixed with young corn cobs and corn silk (elongated stigmas) and cooked in water. The mixture is cooked until the volume of water drops to a third of the initial volume, and the color becomes red. The decoction is used against urinary problems.
Wild herbs for human nutrition
There were 37 (32.5%) plant species recorded for human nutrition (Table 5). Out of 37 species used for nourishment, 35 species are simultaneously used for medical treatments. The plant drugs are used fresh, dry and processed. Homemade food and beverage products made from or with the addition of wild plants include juices, jams, compotes, wine and Serbian traditional sweet dish “slatko” [65]. Fresh and dried herbs are often used for seasoning, i.e., as spices, either single or in mixtures (e.g., Achillea millefolium, Allium ursinum, Melissa officinalis, Origanum vulgare, Satureja subspicata, Thymus serpyllum, and Urtica dioica). Salad used for nutrition, additionally providing health benefits, especially for stomach ailments regulation is prepared as a mixture of leaves of five species: Fragaria vesca, Plantago major, Rubus plicatus, Rumex acetosa and Urtica dioica.
For the preparation of the sweet delicacy “slatko” the petals of the dog rose (Rosa canina) are used. Firstly, the petals are mixed with water and sugar and the mixture is boiled for at least half an hour. In the next step, a few drops of lemon juice are added to restore a petal color (should remain as gently reddish).
Traditional and beloved herbal beverages in Balkans mainly refer to those made of elder flowers, which has been already reported in some former studies [16]. The new information obtained in our research is related to the note about potential negative effects on men's fertility if it is overused. Elder fruits are used either fresh or processed, mostly for preparing a fruit wine. Fruits of elder are cooked for 15 min at 80 °C with water and sugar (half of the quantity of used fruits), and left for fermentation. Similar use of elder is already known in Europe [66].
Replacement for traditional coffee drink is made of dried and grinded chicory (Cichorium intybus) roots mixed with Turkey oak (Quercus cerris) acorn for nicer flavor.
Overlap of medicinal and food plants
In our study, nearly 100% plant species overlap as food and medicine. This finding is in agreement with another study conducted in Negotin, the very near region [17]. In that study, all plants mentioned as food plants are also used in herbal medicine. An identical situation is observed in the southeastern Serbia (Suva Planina) [16]. On the contrary, on the Kopaonik Mountain (Central Serbia), out of 24 plant species mentioned for nutrition, slightly more than a half are used for both nutrition and medicine [12]. However, in the neighboring country (Croatia) results are different. In a study conducted in Dalmatia, 41 plant taxa are mentioned to be used exclusively for treating a variety of ailments, 43 exclusively as food and 42 for both purposes [59]. Also, in Istria, out of 121 species, 31 species are used exclusively as food, 50 as medicine, and 40 species overlap [67]. On the other hand, a study conducted in the areas of the towns of Našice and Djakovo showed that 37 species are used exclusively as medicine, and 7 species overlap, but there are no plants that are used only as food [62].
Veterinary medicine
The 14 of 114 recorded plant taxa (12.3%) are used in veterinary medicine (Table 5). Plants are mostly used fresh, especially as revetment, and as extracts in form of infusion or decoction. A certain similarity in species used in human and veterinary folk medicine was noticed: of 14 species used in veterinary medicine, only two—the Helleborus odorus and Rumex crispus—are not used in humans.
Traditional practices for the treatment of domestic animals are preserved mostly in rural areas. The hellebore was indicated as an herbal remedy efficient in terminal illness in livestock and pigs. It is known that such practices were often used in the past, especially for horses [68]. Technique that relies on the usage of hellebore roots for this purpose is called in Serbian “natravuvanje stoke” (there is no suitable translation for the term specified). The cleansed fresh or dried part of the root is directly inserted in a certain part of the animal body: into the ears in the case of pigs or in loose skin below the neck in the case of cows. The function of drying is to prevent root bending for easier insertion. Ear of the sick pig is pierced by an awl and a cleansed root is inserted. The root is not removed until the surrounding area becomes purulent and swollen. Part of the ear falls off but a life-threatened animal survives. When cows are treated, a cleansed root is inserted in a dewlap and the tip of the root is left to jut. Root is left in a loose skin on the neck for 24 h. After the defined period has elapsed, root is removed and accumulated pus leaks out. The method is not approved by veterinarians today. However, the informants asserted that sometimes it is necessary—as an extreme way to save the sick animal. The utilization of hellebore for ethnoveterinary purposes is known from earlier ethnobotanical studies conducted in Serbia [12, 13, 17], but details are for the first time provided here.
Mastitis in cattle is caused by various factors, mainly infections, but also by some other physical and chemical traumas [69]. Two plant species are mentioned for mastitis treatment, the agrimony (Agrimonia eupatoria) and the vervain. Ethnoveterinarian study from Italy provides information on the usage of vervain against mastitis in cows although the methods of application differ [70].
Folk and religious rituals and ethnoculture
The usage of a total of 17 (14.9%) plant species is linked to traditional customs and rites (Table 6). Many plant species are utilized for religious purposes and various stories and legends are related to their role in ethnoculture. There were some differences in the use of herbs in traditional customs between two investigated districts. Performing rituals for the Fest Days is more developed and practiced in the Bor District. Most of the respondents stressed that wild plants are gladly used in celebration of some holy and festive days, especially the St. George’s Day (“Đurđevdan” in Serbian; May 6) and the St. John’s Day (“Ivanjdan” in Serbian; July 7). In Bor district, more data were obtained on folk customs and tradition, possibly because of the need to protect the national identity in a multicultural community. In the Bor District, four plant species are used for St. George’s Day celebration. Early in the morning, H. odorus aerial parts are tied and left to hang in the part of the yard where cattle reside as protection against spells and impure forces. On the Eve of St. George’s Day, geranium (Geranium macrorrhizum) flowers and leaves and willow (Salix alba) twigs with leaves are combined to make garlands. Garlands are placed around buckets used for sheep milk collection to increase milk yield. The willow is also placed around the waist to avoid back pain throughout the year. Hazelnut (Corylus colurna) is also used for this Fest Day. It is also used in rural areas as a defense against snakes. Hazelnut is put on the fence around the house, especially in front of the front door because it is believed that snakes do not approach this area. Also, informants carry sticks made of hazelnut branches in the wild to protect them against snakes. Hazelnut fruit is an amulet. Usage of these species has been confirmed and found in the literature. It is also known that other species of the genera Corylus are used in the same way as mentioned hazelnut [68].
For Easter, local people make a mixture of Cornus mas flowers and Urtica dioica leaves. Red wine and an Easter egg (exclusively red color) with bread crumbs are added to the mixture. Early in the morning, in front of the front door, family members cross themself, turn in the direction of sunrise three times and after every turn, they drink a teaspoon of this beverage. The order is from the oldest to the youngest member of the family.
Garlands are made for St. John’s Day too. Different plant species are included but the most abundant one is yellow bedstraw (Galium verum). Other plant species that can be inserted are A. millefolium, H. perforatum, Tanacetum vulgare. Garlands are hung on the front door of home and kept until the next year on the same day. On that day, last year’s garlands are thrown away and the new ones are made. Custom is repeated every year. It is believed that this custom secures home protection from negative influence, evil thoughts and glances. It is shown that yellow bedstraw is a favorite flower among people and that this custom is used a lot. There is also evidence that garlic can be inserted into the garlands [68]. Tea made of H. perforatum is drunk as a part of religious beliefs. This plant is considered as one with an extremely magical effect for evil spirits expelling. Because of that, it is consumed only in the evening. The magical power of H. perforatum was also confirmed in the literature [71].
In the Aleksinac, customs for St. George’s Day are also performed. The customs differ from the ones in the Bor District. One of the symbolic acts for celebration is home gate decorating. Plant species used are Cornus mas, Salix purpurea and Helleborus odorus. Earlier, children were bathed with these plants and red eggs that have been kept since Easter to ensure their health. Young couples were collecting aerial parts of Galium aparine and binding themself around the waist because it is believed that done deed will secure their love forever. Beliefs related to uses of this plant are known from the literature. If the young woman takes part of the plant and inserts it into her left sock, she will be appealing to others and liked by them [68].
Oak (Quercus cerris) is used as a ritual tree. It is brought into the house and also left in front of the door on Christmas Eve.
People use Asarum europaeum in their diet as a spice and for religious purposes. It should be kept especially if there are small children. It is believed that they will not cry or be afraid in the presence of this plant. Occasionally, it is used to incense houses. Sempervivum tectorum is planted in the front of the house as a protection from evil forces.
Laserpitium siler is a species that is connected to various stories and beliefs, primarily “as a key for all locks,” the key to success, and as a protector of home and a person [8]. Thanks to such beliefs it is good to carry a part of this plant in a wallet or at home. Some informants mentioned that they have this plant in their car as a protection from accidents. Usually, root is used, but any other part of the plant can be used. Since the species is rare in nature, the broad-leaved laserwort (L. latifolium) is used as a replacement according to the results of the current study. Some informants mentioned that crumbled parts are burnt and used as smoked incense to protect home from spells and witchcraft. It is believed that hedgehogs can find the plant to protect their cubs. This story is characteristic of east Serbia [68].
According to respondents, the chicory is used as a guardian for travelers. It is believed that it always brings people back to the place where they came from. The plant is a good protector from diseases, accidents and other bad things.
Other uses
There are few plant species listed for face and body care use. Herbal cosmetic products varied in their complexity. There were simple products that include material from the single species, with a simple method of preparation (e.g., St. John’s Wort oil extract). Some informants indicated that asarabacca (Asarum europaeum) was applied in fragrant baths in the past. Squashed roots are left in a bowl of water and poured into a bath. Today, it is not practiced anymore due to the awareness of respondents on the toxicity of the plant.
Homecrafts are pretty rare in the study area, but there are still some rural households using plants in some practices. For example, Clematis vitalba branches are used for making simple beehives, and Melissa officinalis for gathering bees together due to its pleasant scent. The nettle was recorded as a pest repellent which is in accordance with data provided by Mullalija and collaborators (2021) [21].
Ethnobotanical richness and the similarities with other ethnobotanical investigations in Serbia (Jaccard index)
Results of this research were compared with data obtained from earlier studies conducted on the territory of Central Serbia [12], southwestern Serbia [13, 14], and especially of those performed in the closest areas, i.e., parts of the eastern and southeastern Serbia [15–20] (Table 7). According to the JI (Table 7), the highest degree of similarity was recorded with studies conducted on Suva Planina mountain (southeastern Serbia) with a JI of 28.7, Kopaonik (Central Serbia) with a JI of 27.3, as well as River Timok region and Mountain Svrljig region (eastern and southeastern Serbia) with a JI of 24.1. It was shown that small and isolated areas provide more specific information on the traditional uses of wild plants [72].
Table 7.
Ethnobotanical comparison between our results and ethnobotanical data conducted in other investigated areas of Serbia
| Area | Year(s) when the studies conducted | No. of plant taxa | No. of medicinal taxa | No. of taxa used in human nutrition | No. of taxa used in veterinary medicine | No. of taxa used in animal nutrition | No. of taxa used in beliefs and contemplation | No. of taxa used in other purposes | Plants that overlap from this study with plants from previous studies | Jaccard Index | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Central Serbia | 2002–2005 | 91 | 91 | 25 | 11 | / | / | 7 | 43 | 27.33 | Jarić et al. 12 |
|
Southwestern Serbia |
2010 | 62 | 62 | 5 | 3 | / | / | 8 | 22 | 15.79 | Pieroni et al. 13 |
|
Southwestern Serbia |
2011 | 69 | 69 | 3 | / | / | / | / | 30 | 22.00 | Šavikin et al. 14 |
| Eastern Serbia | 2011–2012 | 45 | 45 | / | / | / | / | / | 24 | 20.45 | Zlatković et al. 15 |
| Southeastern Serbia | 2012–2014 | 137 | 128 | 43 | 5 | / | / | 16 | 30 | 28.72 | Jarić et al. 16 |
| Eastern Serbia | 2016 | 37 | 37 | 19 | 3 | 8 | 1 | 17 | 20 | 14.39 | Janaćković et al. 17 |
| Eastern and southeastern Serbia | 2015–2017 | 195 | 190 | / | / | / | 21 | 4 | 53 | 24.10 | Matejić et al.18 |
| Southeastern Serbia | 2015 | 85 | / | / | / | / | / | / | 28 | 17.75 | Živković et al. 19 |
| Eastern Serbia | 2017 | 192 | / | / | 46 | / | / | / | 14 | 19.55 | Marković et al.20 |
| Eastern Serbia | 2019 | 114 | 100 | 37 | 14 | 6 | 17 | 24 | 114 | 100.00 | Present study |
Novel ethnobotanical records
The results of our study highlighted the new usage of some well-known traditional plants in Serbia and Balkans. These plant species are: Robinia pseudoacacia, Sempervivum tectorum, Taraxacum officinale, Teucrium chamaedrys, Tilia platyphyllos, Urtica dioica, Verbena officinalis and Veronica officinalis. They are used for different purposes: four for medicinal uses (Sempervivum tectorum against headache; Taraxacum officinale for face washing, positive effect on vocal cord, against jaundice; Teucrium chamaedrys for eye ailments, cataract treatment; Veronica officinalis for blood vessels cleansing), one for veterinary use (Verbena officinalis against udder inflammation in cows), one for nutrition (Robinia pseudoacacia breaded as food) and two for other purposes (Tilia platyphyllos for egg dyeing; Urtica dioica for rubbing ear before piercing) (Tables 4, 5 and 6▲).
Interesting information was obtained for the field horsetail, the Equisetum arvense. Although the use of this plant in Serbia and in the Balkans is well known from before, the usage of fertile parts was not mentioned in any of the other ethnobotanical studies. Herbal remedies made from fertile parts are applied in the same way as the sterile parts. The interesting note was on people’s perception of the herb. Usage of the fertile parts was recorded in the village Jakovlje, where women call the plant “štukavac,” because it occurs around St. George’s Day, after which it disappears (Serb. local folk dialect “štukne “ in Eng. fade away) until the next spring. According to the respondent, the fertile part (the spike) of the field horsetail was in fact considered as a different species.
After comparison with studies conducted in Serbia, in addition to the review of available textbooks on medicinal plants, we assumed that 11 species were noted for the first time (marked with asterisk (*) in Tables 4, 5 and 6). Of these 11 species, the application of 4 species—Alcea biennis, Asplenium viride, Kickxia elatine and Xeranthemum cylindraceum, in the folk medicine is novel information for the Balkan region (according comprehensive review of the most relevant ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological surveys performed in the Balkan region [52,-54,56,57,59,62,63,73–88].
In addition to use in some traditional handicrafts, the Xeranthemum cylindraceum (Fig. 2A) is also used for medicinal purposes. Brooms (aerial parts) are soaked with warm water and applied on the back against fever. There are several studies implying antipyretic activity of members of Asteraceae family [89–91]. The effect on health could also be attributed to the specialized metabolites of this species. The essential oil obtained from the aerial parts of the plant represents a terpenoid-rich mixture, with 1,8-cineole, α-terpineol, hexadecanoic acid and caryophyllene oxide as predominant compounds. The guaianolide-type sesquiterpene lactones xerantholide and 11,13-dihydroxerantholide were the major compounds found in the extracts, along with 3-hydroxybenzaldehyde. The sesquiterpene lactone of an eudesmanolide type 11,13-dihydroisoalantolactone and pseudoguaianolide confertin were present in extracts as well [92]. Sesquiterpene lactones, as well as essential oil compounds, exhibit an antipyretic activity [93, 94]. Therefore, the use in folk medicine as mentioned by respondents in our study sounds reasonable.
Fig. 2.
Novel information for Balkan region regarding usage of four species in the folk medicine. A Xeranthemum cylindraceum Sm. (Photograph by Miletić, M.); B Asplenium viride Huds. (Photograph by Janaćković, P.); C Kickxia elatine (L.) Dumort (Public domain); D Alcea biennis Winterl (Photograph by Miletić, M.)
Asplenium viride (Fig. 2B) leaves are collected and prepared as an infusion. The purpose of the infusion administration is to cure fright. Potential medicinal properties of A. viride, as an antihypertensive drug, were noted in the research on cardiovascular diseases in the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands [95]. The phytochemical constituents of this plant species have not been sufficiently investigated. Plant with the same name in Serbian, the “strašnik” is Ceterach officinarum Willd. (syn. Asplenium ceterach L.). The etymology of the local name is linked to the “fear” (in Serbian “strah”), which could explain its use as an anxiolytic drug. C. officinarum is known from Serbian textbooks of medicinal plants [9, 96] and from ethnobotanical research [18].
According to our investigation, the Kickxia elatine (Fig. 2C) is used as a herbal remedy for wound healing, mainly for farmers being hurt during their work on the fields. In case of an injury, the plant is applied at the wounded place. There is a similarity in the use of the plant comparing our results with two studies conducted on spatially distant regions. Uses of Kickxia elatine are known from the Italian and Indian ethnobotanical studies. In Italy, it is directly applied to prevent and decrease the feet sweating [97]. The local tribes of the Western Ghats in India use this plant as a hemostatic agent and for wound treatments [98]. There are only a few studies focusing on the phytochemistry of this species. The main identified compounds are the iridoids, namely iridoid glycosides, kickxioside, antirrinoside, antirride, mussaenosidic acid, 5-O-menthiafoloylkickxioside and kickxin [99].
Alcea biennis (Fig. 2D) infusion is made of leaves. According to records obtained in our study, it is utilized for respiratory and digestive system disorders, i.e., for cough treatment, against sinusitis and against intestine diseases. The traditional uses of this species are recorded for Turkey and Iran [100–102]. There is much similarity in traditional use of the plant in folk medicine in our and these studies. To the best of our knowledge, Alcea biennis has not been studied from the phytochemical aspect.
Concluding remarks
Both qualitative and quantitative methods are quite valid in ethnobotanical studies. While qualitative data collection allows in-depth exploration of traditional knowledge regarding wild plants, quantitative methods can be useful in the comparison of the efficacy of different data collection methodologies [103]. Quantitative analyses represent a tool for obtaining data comparable to other studies as well as deriving reasonable conclusions based on the data collected. Increasing quantification of ethnobotanical studies has been continuously highlighted by some ethnobotanists [104, 105]. Some authors evaluated the use of Ellenberg values to establish whether there are differences between the environmental preferences of wild medicinal and food plants. Similar quantitative analysis would strengthen the discipline and provide rigorous testing methods [67]. However, some limitations of our work may refer to revealing the group of plants most important to a culture of this area, since we used the quantitative methods to measure individual traditional botanical knowledge, but on the other hand, this is important for comparison, in the future, with ethnobotanical heritage in similar small regions. Also, we performed a multivariate analysis with a clearly defined goal in the first place, to find a connection between plants and their usage, keeping in mind Pieroni's (2002) observation that, in some cases, it is easier to be impressed with this method, but without motivation for its usage in the right way.
High migration rates, depopulation and aging are typical features for rural Balkan areas causing accelerated loss of ethnobotanical knowledge and traditional practices in agriculture. Local inhabitants typically acquire ethnobotanical knowledge from their ancestors (parents, grandparents) and older neighbors in direct contact, which is a medium- and long-term risk for permanent knowledge loss. In addition, informants were concerned about the threatening of ethnobotanical information through its oral transmission and general weak interest of the young.
Some authors implemented a participatory approach in ethnobotanical research [106] where involvement and active participation of the local inhabitants should be included in the decision-making process and sustainable management of plant resources. The necessary actions for the preservation of both ethnobotanical knowledge and resources of medicinal plants in the studied area could be summarized as: a) raising of public awareness on ethnobotanical knowledge and related culture heritage, b) promotion of ethnotourism and traditional herbal remedies, food and beverage products, c) organization of herbal tours and d) creation of a sustainable management plan for economically important plants.
Our study indicated that small and specific areas in the Balkans (rural, abandoned, economically devastated and with high migration rate) may be an important reservoir of ethnobotanical knowledge, providing new information on the traditional use of plants. Results emphasized the great importance of wild plants in the daily life of the natives. Indigenous plants are still significant in traditional medicine. Therefore, there is a necessity to preserve the traditional knowledge of plant use, especially in regard to potential relevance for further pharmacological surveys. New records on use of the wild plants, as well as the way of their processing and combination in traditional remedies and products, confirmed our starting hypothesis on unique features of the study area.
Supplementary Information
Additional fil 1. Supplementary material.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia for financial support (No. 451-03-68/2022-14/200178 and 451-03-9/2021-14/200116) for the EthnoHERBS-H2020-MSCA-RISE-2018 project.
Abbreviations
- BEOU
Herbarium of the University of Belgrade—Faculty of Biology, Institute of Botany and Botanical Garden “Jevremovac”
- FL
Fidelity level
- FC
Frequency of citation
- ICF-FIC
Informant consensus factor
- ISE
The International Society of Ethnobiology
- JI
Jaccard index
- PCoA
Principal coordinate analysis
- RCI
Relative cultural importance indices
- RFC
Relative frequency of citation
- RI
Relative importance index
- UV
Use value
- WHO
World Health Organization
Author contributions
PJ, MG and ZDS initiated the research concept. PJ, MG, MM and MR wrote the manuscript, organized plant material collection and identified the plant species. MM and MR collected plant material and interviewed the local population. SK statistically analyzed the data. ZDS revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript. The authors kindly thanks to Prof. Dr. Ben-Erik van Wyk for his useful suggestions and comments.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Availability of data and materials
All the needed data collected for this study were analyzed and incorporated into this manuscript.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
All the participants have been explained the process and nature of this project and asked to provide oral informed consent.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Footnotes
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Pedja Janaćković and Milan Gavrilović contributed equally to this work.
Contributor Information
Pedja Janaćković, Email: pjanackovic@bio.bg.ac.rs.
Milan Gavrilović, Email: mgavrilovic@bio.bg.ac.rs.
Milica Miletić, Email: milica.miletic@bio.bg.ac.rs.
Maja Radulović, Email: maja.radulovic@bio.bg.ac.rs.
Stefan Kolašinac, Email: stefan.kolasinac@agrif.bg.ac.rs.
Zora Dajić Stevanović, Email: dajic@agrif.bg.ac.rs.
References
- 1.Kumar S, Malhotra R, Kumar D. Euphorbia hirta: its chemistry, traditional and medicinal uses and pharmacologicSal activities. Pharmacogn Rev. 2010;4(7):58–61. doi: 10.4103/0973-7847.65327. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 2.Fabricant DS, Farnsworth NR. The value of plants used in traditional medicine for drug discovery. Environ Health Perspect. 2001;109:69–75. doi: 10.1289/ehp.01109s169. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 3.Veeresham C. Natural products derived from plants as a source of drugs. J Adv Pharm Technol Res. 2012;3:200–201. doi: 10.4103/2231-4040.104709. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 4.Muthu C, Ayyanar M, Raja N, Ignacimuthu S. Medicinal plants used by traditional healers in Kancheepuram district of Tamil Nadu India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomedicine. 2006;2:43. doi: 10.1186/1746-4269-2-43. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 5.Stevanović V, Jovanović S, Lakušić D, Niketić M. Karakteristike i osobenosti flore Srbije i njen fitogeografski položaj na Balkanskom poluostrvu i u Evropi. Crvena knjiga flore Srbije. 1999;1:9–18. [Google Scholar]
- 6.Stevanović V. Biodiversity estimation – from interpretation to conservation, example of endemic vascular flora of the Balkans. In: Anđelković M, editor. Biodiversity at the Onset of the Millennium, Scientific Meetings, Book CXI (vol 2). Dept. of the chemical and biological sciences, SASA; 2005. p. 53–73.
- 7.Niketić M, Tomović G, Stevanović V. Toward the annotated checklist of vascular flora of Serbia – objectives, methodology and challenges. Biol Serb. 2018;40:4–15. doi: 10.5281/zenodo.1406295. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 8.Dajić Stevanović Z, Petrović M, Aćić S. Ethnobotanical knowledge and traditional use of plants in Serbia in relation to sustainable rural development Ch.12. In: Pieroni A, Quave CL, editors. Ethnobotany and biocultural diversities in the balkans. perspectives on sustainable rural development and reconciliation. New York: Springer; 2014. p. 229–52. 10.1007/978-1-4939-1492-0_12.
- 9.Sarić M. Lekovite biljke SR Srbije. Beograd: Odeljenje prirodno-matematičkih nauka SANU: Posebna izdanja DXCVIII. 65; 1989 (in Serbian).
- 10.Jarić S, Mitrović M, Djurdjević L, Kostić O, Gajić G, Pavlović D, Pavlović P. Phytotherapy in medieval Serbian medicine according to the pharmacological manuscripts of the Chilandar Medical Codex (15–16th centuries) J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;137:601–619. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2011.06.016. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 11.Jarić S, Mitrović M, Karadžić B, Kostić O, Djurdjević L, Pavlović M, Pavlović P. Plant resources used in Serbian medieval medicine. Ethnobotany and ethnomedicine. Genet Resour Crop Evol. 2014;61:1359–1379. doi: 10.1007/s10722-014-0118-1. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 12.Jarić S, Popović Z, Mačukanović-Jocić M, Djurdjević L, Mijatović M, Karadžić B, Mitrović M, Pavlović P. An ethnobotanical study on the usage of wild medicinal herbs from Kopaonik Mountain (Central Serbia) J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;111:160–175. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2006.11.007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 13.Pieroni A, Giusti ME, Quave CL. Cross-cultural ethnobiology in the Western Balkans: medical ethnobotany and ethnozoology among albanians and Serbs in the Pešter Plateau, Sandžak. South-Western Serbia Hum Ecol. 2011;39:333–349. doi: 10.1007/s10745-011-9401-3. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 14.Šavikin K, Zdunić G, Menković N, Živković J, Čujić N, Terešćenko M, Bigović D. Ethnobotanical study on traditional use of medicinal plants in South-Western Serbia. Zlatibor district J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;146:803–810. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2013.02.006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 15.Zlatković BK, Bogosavljević SS, Radivojević AR, Pavlović MA. Traditional use of the native medicinal plant resource of Mt Rtanj (Eastern Serbia): ethnobotanical evaluation and comparison. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;151:704–713. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2013.11.037. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 16.Jarić S, Mačukanović-Jocić M, Djurdjević L, Mitrović M, Kostić O, Karadžić B, Pavlović P. An ethnobotanical survey of traditionally used plants on Suva planina mountain (South-eastern Serbia) J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;175:93–108. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2015.09.002. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 17.Janaćković P, Gavrilović M, Savić J, Marin PD, Dajić SZ. Traditional knowledge on plant use from Negotin Krajina (Eastern Serbia): an ethnobotanical study. Indian J Tradit Know. 2019;18:25–33. [Google Scholar]
- 18.Matejić JS, Stefanović N, Ivković M, Živanović N, Marin PD, Džamić AM. Traditional uses of autochthonous medicinal and ritual plants and other remedies for health in Eastern and South-Eastern Serbia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2020;261:113–186. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2020.113186. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 19.Živković J, Ilić M, Šavikin K, Zdunić G, Ilić A, Stojković D. Traditional use of medicinal plants in South-Eastern Serbia (Pčinja district): ethnopharmacological investigation on the current status and comparison with half a century old data. Front Pharmacol. 2020;11:1020. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2020.01020. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 20.Marković MS, Pljevljakušić DS, Nikolić BM, Miladinović DL, Djokić MM, Rakonjac LB, Jovanović VPS. Ethnoveterinary knowledge in Pirot county (Serbia) S Afr J Bot. 2021;137:278–289. doi: 10.1016/j.sajb.2020.10.025. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 21.Mullalija B, Mustafa B, Hajdari A, Quave CL, Pieroni A. Ethnobotany of rural and urban Albanians and Serbs in the Anadrini region. Kosovo Genet Resour Crop Evol. 2021;68:1825–1848. doi: 10.1007/s10722-020-01099-9. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 22.Savić O. Uticajna sfera Aleksinca i njene osobine. Naučno delo; 1958 (in Serbian).
- 23.Čokorilo V, Lilić N, Purga J, Milisavljević V. Oil shale potential in Serbia. Oil shale. 2009;26:451–462. doi: 10.3176/oil.2009.4.02. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 24.Sokolović D, Beljić Č, Gagić D. Investigation of possibilities for simultaneous exploitation of coal and oil shale in the Aleksinac basin. Co-Editor.2010;47.
- 25.Ilić I, Bogdanović D, Tivković D, Milošević N, Todorović B. Optimization of heavy metals total emission, case study: Bor (Serbia) Atmos Res. 2011;101:450–459. doi: 10.1016/j.atmosres.2011.04.002. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 26.Urošević S, Vuković M, Pejčić B, Štrbac N. Mining-metallurgical sources of pollution in Eastern Serbia and environmental consciousness. Rev Int Contam Ambient. 2018;34:103–115. doi: 10.20937/rica.2018.34.01.09. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 27.Statistical office of Serbia. Population, ethnicity. Belgrade: Data by municipalities and cities, Book 1; 2011a.
- 28.Statistical Office of Serbia. Population, comparative overview of the number of population in 1948, 1953, 1961, 1971, 1981, 1991, 2002 and 2011. Belgrade: Data by settlement, Book 20; 2011b.
- 29.Novaković I, Đurđević N. Serbian-Romanian relations and the status of the Vlach minority in Serbia. International and security affairs centre, Belgrade; 2015.
- 30.Pijović M. Vlachs in the Ragusan sources until the 14th century. Doctoral dissertation. Zagreb, Croatia: University of Zagreb; 2018. https://urn.nsk.hr/urn:nbn:hr:111:098432.
- 31.Javorka S, Csapody V. Iconographia florae partis austro-orientalis europae centralis. Budapest: Akademiai Kiado; 1977. [Google Scholar]
- 32.Josifović M, Flora of Serbia (I–X). Belgrade: serbian academy of sciences and arts; 1970–1986 (In Serbian).
- 33.Tutin TG, Heywood V, Burges NA, Moore DM, Valentine DH, Walters SM, Webb DA. Flora Europaea. London: Cambridge University Press; 1993. [Google Scholar]
- 34.Tutin TG, Heywood VH, Burges NA, Moore DM, Valentine DH, Walters SM, Webb DA. Flora Europaea (I-V) London: Cambridge University Press; 1980. [Google Scholar]
- 35.Nikolić T Flora croatica (vol 2–3) - vascular flora of the Republic of Croatia. Zagreb: Alfa d.d.; 2020 (in Croatian).
- 36.Simonović D. Botanički rečnik. SANU: posebna izdanja, Beograd; 1959 (in Serbian).
- 37.Thiers B. Index herbariorum: a global directory of public herbaria and associated staff. New York botanical garden’s virtual herbarium. 2019. http://sweetgum.nybg.org/ih/.
- 38.The ISE code of ethics, international society of ethnobiology, http://ethnobiology.net/code-of-ethics/ (2006).
- 39.Weckerle CS, de Boer HJ, Puri RK, van Andel T, Bussmann RW, Leonti M. Recommended standards for conducting and reporting ethnopharmacological field studies. J Ethnopharmacol. 2018;210:125–132. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2017.08.018. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 40.Tardio J, Pardo-de-Santayana M. Cultural importance indices: a comparative analysis based on the useful wild plants of Southern Cantabria (Northern Spain) Econ Bot. 2008;62:24–39. doi: 10.1007/s12231-007-9004-5. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 41.Trotter RT, Logan MH. Informant consensus: a new approach for identifying potentially effective medicinal plants. In: Etkin NL, editor. Plants in indigenous medicine and diet, behavioural approaches. New York: Redgrave Publishing Company, Bredfort Hills; 1986. pp. 91–112. [Google Scholar]
- 42.Gazzaneo LRS, De Lucena RFP, de Albuquerque UP. Knowledge and use of medicinal plants by local specialists in an region of Atlantic forest in the state of Pernambuco (Northeastern Brazil) J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2005;1:1–8. doi: 10.1186/1746-4269-1-9. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 43.Phillips O, Gentry AH. The useful plants of Tambopata, Peru: II additional hypothesis testing in quantitative ethnobotany. Econ Bot. 1993;47:33–43. doi: 10.1007/BF02862204. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 44.Rossato SC, Leitão-Filho HF, Begossi A. Ethnobotany of caiçaras of the Atlantic forest coast (Brazil) Econ Bot. 1999;53:387–395. doi: 10.1007/BF02866716. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 45.Silva VAS, Nascimento VT, Soldati GT, Medeiros MFT, Albuquerque UP. Techniques for analysis of quantitative ethnobiological data: use of indices. In: Albuquerque U, da Cruz CL, Lucena R, Alves R, editors. Methods and techniques in ethnobiology and ethnoecology. New York: Springer; 2014. p. 37995. [Google Scholar]
- 46.Friedman J, Yaniv Z, Dafni A, Palewitch D. A preliminary classification of the healing potential of medicinal plants, based on a rational analysis of an ethnopharmacological field survey among Bedouins in the Negev Desert. Israel J Ethnopharmacol. 1986;16:275–287. doi: 10.1016/0378-8741(86)90094-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 47.Sneath PHA, Sokal RR. Numerical taxonomy. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman and Company; 1973. [Google Scholar]
- 48.González-Tejero MR, Casares-Porcel M, Sánchez-Rojas CP, Ramiro-Gutiérrez JM, Molero-Mesa J, Pieroni A, et al. Medicinal plants in the mediterranean area: synthesis of the results of the project Rubia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;116:341–357. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2007.11.045. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 49.Obradovic L, Bugarin M, Marinković V. The effect of mine facilities on pollution the surrounding surface waterways. Min Metal Eng Bor. 2012;4:191–196. doi: 10.5937/rudrad1204185O. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 50.European pharmacopoeia 8.0. 8th ed. Strasburg: Council of Europe; 2013.
- 51.González JA, García-Barriuso M, Amich F. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants traditionally used in the Arribes del Duero, western Spain. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;131:343–355. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2010.07.022. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 52.Redžić S. The ecological aspect of ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology of population in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Coll Anthrop. 2007;31:869–890. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 53.Šarić-Kundalić B, Dobeš C, Klatte-Asselmeyer V, Saukel J. Ethnobotanical study on medicinal use of wild and cultivated plants in middle, south and west Bosnia and Herzegovina. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;131:33–55. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2010.05.061. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 54.Savić J, Mačukanović-Jocić M, Jarić S. Medical ethnobotany on the Javor mountain (Bosnia and Herzegovina) Eur J Integr Med. 2019;27:52–64. doi: 10.1016/j.eujim.2019.02.007. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 55.Menković N, Šavikin K, Tasić S, Zdunić G, Stešević D, Milosavljević S, Vincek D. Ethnobotanical study on traditional uses of wild medicinal plants in Prokletije Mountains (Montenegro) J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;133:97–107. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2010.09.008. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 56.Mustafa B, Hajdari A, Pulaj B, Quave CL, Pieroni A. Medical and food ethnobotany among Albanians and Serbs living in the Shtërpcë/Štrpce area. South Kosovo J Herb Med. 2020;22:100–344. doi: 10.1016/j.hermed.2020.100344. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 57.Mustafa M, Hajdari A, Pajazita Q, Syla B, Quave L, Pieroni A. An ethnobotanical survey of the Gollak region. Kosovo Genetic Resour Crop Evol. 2012;59:739–754. doi: 10.1007/s10722-011-9715-4. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 58.Polat R, Satıl F. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants in Edremit Gulf (Balıkesir–Turkey) J Ethnopharmacol. 2012;139:626–641. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2011.12.004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 59.Varga F, Šolić I, Dujaković MJ, Łuczaj Ł, Grdiša M. The first contribution to the ethnobotany of inland dalmatia: medicinal and wild food plants of the Knin area. Croatia. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2019 doi: 10.5586/asbp.3622. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 60.Menninger K. Number words and number symbols: a cultural history of numbers. New York: Dover publications, Inc; 2013. [Google Scholar]
- 61.Flegg G. Numbers: their history and meaning. New York: Dover publications, Inc; 2013. [Google Scholar]
- 62.Žuna Pfeiffer T, Krstin L, Špoljarić Maronić D, Hmura M, Eržić I, Bek N, Stević F. An ethnobotanical survey of useful wild plants in the north-eastern part of Croatia (Pannonian region) Pl Biosystems. 2020;154:463–473. doi: 10.1080/11263504.2019.1635222. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 63.Mustafa B, Hajdari A, Krasniqi F, Hoxha E, Ademi H, Quave C, Pieroni A. Medical ethnobotany of the Albanian Alps in Kosovo. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2012;8:6. doi: 10.1186/1746-4269-8-6. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 64.Pieroni A, Giusti ME, Münz H, Lenzarini C, Turković G, Turković A. Ethnobotanical knowledge of the Istro-Romanians of Žejane in Croatia. Fitoterapia. 2003;74:710–719. doi: 10.1016/j.fitote.2003.06.002. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 65.Veljković B, Karabegović I, Aćić S, Topuzović M, Petrović I, Savić S, Dajić SZ. The wild raspberry in Serbia: an ethnobotanical study. Bot Serb. 2021;45:107–117. doi: 10.2298/BOTSERB2101107V. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 66.Schmitzer V, Veberic R, Slatnar A, Stampar F. Elderberry (Sambucus nigra L.) wine: a product rich in health promoting compounds. J Agric Food Chem. 2010;58:10143–10146. doi: 10.1021/jf102083s. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 67.Vitasović Kosić I, Juračak J, Łuczaj Ł. Using ellenberg-pignatti values to estimate habitat preferences of wild food and medicinal plants: an example from northeastern Istria (Croatia) J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:1–19. doi: 10.1186/s13002-017-0159-6. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 68.Čajkanović V. Rečnik srpskih narodnih verovanja o biljkama. Srpska književna zadruga: BIGZ, Prosveta, Partenon; 1994 (in Serbian).
- 69.Zhao X, Lacasse P. Mammary tissue damage during bovine mastitis: causes and control. J Anim Sci. 2008;86:57–65. doi: 10.2527/jas.2007-0302. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 70.Akerreta S, Calvo MI, Cavero RY. Ethnoveterinary knowledge in navarra (Iberian Peninsula) J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;130:369–378. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2010.05.023. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 71.Peiró PS, Galve JJG, Lucas MO. Monográfico de hypericum perforatum L. Med Natur. 2010;4:5–10. [Google Scholar]
- 72.Łuczaj L, Jug Dujaković M, Dolina K, Jeričević M, Vitasović-Kosić I. Insular pharmacopoeias: ethnobotanical characteristics of medicinal plants used on the Adriatic islands. Front Pharmacol. 2021;12:597. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2021.623070. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 73.de Boer H. Local awareness of scarcity and endangerment of medicinal plants in Roussenski Lom Natural Park in Northern Bulgaria. In: de Santayana MP, Pieroni A, Puri RK, editors. Ethnobotany in the new Europe: people, health and wild plant resources. New York: Berghahn; 2010. pp. 93–111. [Google Scholar]
- 74.Dogan Y, Nedelcheva A, Łuczaj Ł, Drăgulescu C, Stefkov G, Ferrier J, et al. Of the importance of a leaf: the ethnobotany of sarma in Turkey and the Balkans. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:1–15. doi: 10.1186/s13002-015-0002-x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 75.Ferrier J, Saciragic L, Trakić S, Chen ECH, Gendron RL, Cuerrier A, et al. An ethnobotany of the lukomir highlanders of Bosnia & Herzegovina. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:81. doi: 10.1186/s13002-015-0068-5. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 76.Ivanova TA, Bosseva YZ, Ganeva-Raycheva VG, Dimitrova D. Ethnobotanical knowledge on edible plants used in zelnik pastries from Haskovo province (Southeast Bulgaria) Phytol Balcan. 2018;24:389–395. [Google Scholar]
- 77.Mustafa B, Hajdari A. Medical Ethnobotanical Studies in Kosovo. In: Pieroni A, Quave CL, editors. Ethnobotany and Biocultural diversities in the Balkans. Perspectives on sustainable rural development and reconciliation. New York: Springer; 2014; 10.1007/978-1-4939-1492-0_7.
- 78.Nedelcheva A, Pieroni A, Dogan Y. Folk food and medicinal botanical knowledge among the last remaining Yörüks of the Balkans. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2017;86:3522. doi: 10.5586/asbp.3522. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 79.Pieroni A. Local plant resources in the ethnobotany of Theth, a village in the Northern Albanian Alps. Genetic Resour Crop Evol. 2008;55:1197–1214. doi: 10.1007/s10722-008-9320-3. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 80.Pieroni A, Quave CL, Giusti ME, Papp N. “We are Italians!”: the hybrid ethnobotany of a Venetian diaspora in Eastern Romania. Hum Ecol. 2012;40:435–451. doi: 10.1007/s10745-012-9493-4. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 81.Pieroni A, Rexhepi B, Nedelcheva A, Mustafa B, Hajdari A, Kolosova V, Cianfaglione K, Quave CL. One century later: the folk botanical knowledge of the last remaining Albanians of the upper Reka Valley, Mount Korab. Western Macedonia J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:22. doi: 10.1186/1746-4269-9-22. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 82.Pieroni A, Ibraliu I, Abbasi AM, Papajani-Toska V. An ethnobotanical study among Albanians and Aromanians living in the Rraicë and Mokra areas of Eastern Albania. Genetic Resour Crop Evol. 2015;62:477–500. doi: 10.1007/s10722-014-0174-6. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 83.Pieroni A, Nedelcheva A, Dogan Y. Local knowledge of medicinal plants and wild food plants among tatars and Romanians in Dobruja (South-East Romania) Genetic Resour Crop Evol. 2015;62:605–620. doi: 10.1007/s10722-014-0185-3. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 84.Šarić-Kundalić B, Fritz E, Dobeš C, Saukel J. Traditional medicine in the pristine village of Prokoško lake on Vranica Mountain. Bosnia Herzegovina Sci Pharm. 2010;78:275–290. doi: 10.3797/scipharm.1003-06. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 85.Šarić-Kundalić B, Dobeš C, Klatte-Asselmeyer V, Saukel J. Ethnobotanical survey of traditionally used plants in human therapy of east, north and north-east Bosnia and Herzegovina. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;133:1051–1076. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2010.11.033. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 86.Redžić S, Ferrier J. The use of wild plants for human nutrition during a war: Eastern Bosnia (Western Balkans) In: Quave CL, editor. Pieroni A. Ethnobotany and biocultural diversities in the Balkans. perspectives on sustainable rural development and reconciliation. New York: Springer; 2014. pp. 149–182. [Google Scholar]
- 87.Rexhepi B, Mustafa B, Hajdari A, Rushidi-Rexhepi J, Quave CL, Pieroni A. Traditional medicinal plant knowledge among Albanians, Macedonians and Gorani in the Sharr mountains (republic of Macedonia) Genet Resour Crop Evol. 2013;60:2055–2080. doi: 10.1007/s10722-013-9974-3. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 88.Tsioutsiou EE, Giordani P, Hanlidou E, Biagi M, De Feo V, Cornara L. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used in central Macedonia. Greece Evid Based Complementar Altern Med. 2019 doi: 10.1155/2019/4513792. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 89.García MD, Puerta R, Martínez S, Sáenz MT. Analgesic, antipyretic and antiinflammatory effects of Achillea ageratum. Phytother Res. 1997;11:376–379. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1099-1573(199708)11:5<376::AID-PTR115>3.0.CO;2-M. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 90.Iwalewa EO, Iwalewa OJ, Adeboye JO. Analgesic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory effects of methanol, chloroform and ether extracts of Vernonia cinerea less leaf. J Ethnopharmacol. 2003;86:229–234. doi: 10.1016/S0378-8741(03)00081-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 91.Habib M, Waheed I. Evaluation of anti-nociceptive, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic activities of Artemisia scoparia hydromethanolic extract. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;145:18–24. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2012.10.022. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 92.Dekić MS, Radulović NS, Ranđelović VN, Stojanović-Radić ZZ, Veljković BP. Essential oils and diethyl ether extracts of serbian Xeranthemum cylindraceum and X. annum: chemical composition, antimicrobial activity, and chemotaxonomic implications. Chem Biodivers. 2015;12:1378–1397. doi: 10.1002/cbdv.201400316. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 93.Akkol EK, Arif R, Ergun F, Yesilada E. Sesquiterpene lactones with antinociceptive and antipyretic activity from two Centaurea species. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;122:210–215. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2009.01.019. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 94.Morán A, Martín ML, Montero MJ, de Urbina AVO, Sevilla MA, Roman LS. Analgesic, antipyretic and anti-inflammatory activity of the essential oil of Artemisia caerulescens subsp gallica. J Ethnopharmacol. 1989;27:307–317. doi: 10.1016/0378-8741(89)90005-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 95.Gras A, Parada M, Garnatje T, Vallès J. Ethnobotany and plants used against cardiovascular diseases in the iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands. In: Murad F, Rahman A, Bian K, editors. Herbal medicine: back to the future: Volume 2, Vascular Health, 2. Singapore: Bentham Science Publisher; 2019; p. 1–75. 10.2174/9789811403743119020003.
- 96.Tucakov J. Lečenje biljem. Beograd: Rad; 1986 (in Serbian).
- 97.Tuttolomondo T, Licata M, Leto C, Savo V, Bonsangue G, Letizia Gargano M, Venturella G, La Bella S. Ethnobotanical investigation on wild medicinal plants in the Monti Sicani Regional Park (Sicily, Italy) J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;153:568–586. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2014.02.032. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 98.Dhivya SM, Kalaichelvi K. Studies on ethno-medicinal plants used by the Irulas tribe of Thirumurthi Hill of Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu. India Int J Pharm Chem Sci. 2015;3:2116–2124. [Google Scholar]
- 99.Handjieva N, Tersieva L, Popov S, Evstatieva L. Two iridoid glucosides, 5-O- Menthiafoloylkickxioside and kickxin, from Kickxia Dum species. Phytochemistry. 1995;39:925–927. doi: 10.1016/0031-9422(95)00019-4. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 100.Mardaninejad S, Janghorban M, Vazirpour M. Collection and identification of medicinal plants used by the indigenous people of Mobarakeh (Isfahan), southwestern Iran. J Med Herb. 2013;4:23–32. [Google Scholar]
- 101.Sargın SA, Akçicek E, Selvi S. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by the local people of Alaşehir (Manisa) in Turkey. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;150:860–874. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2013.09.040. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 102.Kalankan G, Özkan ZC, Akbulut S. Medicinal and aromatic wild plants and traditional usage of them in Mount Ida (Balıkesir/Turkey) J Appl Biol Sci. 2015;9:25–33. [Google Scholar]
- 103.Cotton CM. Ethnobotany: principles and applications. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons; 1996. [Google Scholar]
- 104.De Albuquerque UP. Quantitative ethnobotany or quantification in ethnobotany. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:1–4. doi: 10.17348/era.7.0.1-3. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 105.Albuquerque UP, Ramos MA, De Lucena RF, Alencar NL. Methods and techniques used to collect ethnobiological data. New York: Springer; 2014. [Google Scholar]
- 106.Rodrigues E, Cassas F, Conde BE, da Cruz C, Barretto EHP, dos Santos G, Figueira GM, Passero LFD, dos Santos MA, Gomes MAS, Matta P, Yazbek P, Garcia R.JF, Braga S, Aragaki S, Honda S, Sauini T, da Fonseca-Kruel VS, Ticktin T. Participatory ethnobotany and conservation: a methodological case study conducted with quilombola communities in Brazil’s Atlantic Forest. J Ethnobiol Ethnomedicine 2020;16:1–12. 10.1186/s13002-019-0352-x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
Associated Data
This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.
Supplementary Materials
Additional fil 1. Supplementary material.
Data Availability Statement
All the needed data collected for this study were analyzed and incorporated into this manuscript.